_On the contrary,_ Dionysius says (Div. Nom. xii): "G.o.d contains all and fills all by His providence and perfect goodness." But government belongs to providence. Therefore there are certain definite effects of the Divine government.
_I answer that,_ The effect of any action may be judged from its end; because it is by action that the attainment of the end is effected.
Now the end of the government of the world is the essential good, to the partic.i.p.ation and similarity of which all things tend.
Consequently the effect of the government of the world may be taken in three ways. First, on the part of the end itself; and in this way there is but one effect, that is, a.s.similation to the supreme good.
Secondly, the effect of the government of the world may be considered on the part of those things by means of which the creature is made like to G.o.d. Thus there are, in general, two effects of the government. For the creature is a.s.similated to G.o.d in two things; first, with regard to this, that G.o.d is good; and so the creature becomes like Him by being good; and secondly, with regard to this, that G.o.d is the cause of goodness in others; and so the creature becomes like G.o.d by moving others to be good. Wherefore there are two effects of government, the preservation of things in their goodness, and the moving of things to good. Thirdly, we may consider in the individual the effects of the government of the world; and in this way they are without number.
Reply Obj. 1: The order of the universe includes both the preservation of things created by G.o.d and their movement. As regards these two things we find order among them, inasmuch as one is better than another; and one is moved by another.
From what has been said above, we can gather the replies to the other two objections.
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FIFTH ARTICLE [I, Q. 103, Art. 5]
Whether All Things Are Subject to the Divine Government?
Objection 1: It would seem that not all things are subject to the Divine government. For it is written (Eccles. 9:11): "I saw that under the sun the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, nor bread to the wise, nor riches to the learned, nor favor to the skillful, but time and chance in all." But things subject to the Divine government are not ruled by chance. Therefore those things which are under the sun are not subject to the Divine government.
Obj. 2: Further, the Apostle says (1 Cor. 9:9): "G.o.d hath no care for oxen." But he that governs has care for the things he governs.
Therefore all things are not subject to the Divine government.
Obj. 3: Further, what can govern itself needs not to be governed by another. But the rational creature can govern itself; since it is master of its own act, and acts of itself; and is not made to act by another, which seems proper to things which are governed. Therefore all things are not subject to the Divine government.
_On the contrary,_ Augustine says (De Civ. Dei v, 11): "Not only heaven and earth, not only man and angel, even the bowels of the lowest animal, even the wing of the bird, the flower of the plant, the leaf of the tree, hath G.o.d endowed with every fitting detail of their nature." Therefore all things are subject to His government.
_I answer that,_ For the same reason is G.o.d the ruler of things as He is their cause, because the same gives existence as gives perfection; and this belongs to government. Now G.o.d is the cause not indeed only of some particular kind of being, but of the whole universal being, as proved above (Q. 44, AA. 1, 2). Wherefore, as there can be nothing which is not created by G.o.d, so there can be nothing which is not subject to His government. This can also be proved from the nature of the end of government. For a man"s government extends over all those things which come under the end of his government. Now the end of the Divine government is the Divine goodness; as we have shown (A. 2).
Wherefore, as there can be nothing that is not ordered to the Divine goodness as its end, as is clear from what we have said above (Q. 44, A. 4; Q. 65, A. 2), so it is impossible for anything to escape from the Divine government.
Foolish therefore was the opinion of those who said that the corruptible lower world, or individual things, or that even human affairs, were not subject to the Divine government. These are represented as saying, "G.o.d hath abandoned the earth" (Ezech. 9:9).
Reply Obj. 1: These things are said to be under the sun which are generated and corrupted according to the sun"s movement. In all such things we find chance: not that everything is casual which occurs in such things; but that in each one there is an element of chance. And the very fact that an element of chance is found in those things proves that they are subject to government of some kind. For unless corruptible things were governed by a higher being, they would tend to nothing definite, especially those which possess no kind of knowledge. So nothing would happen unintentionally; which const.i.tutes the nature of chance. Wherefore to show how things happen by chance and yet according to the ordering of a higher cause, he does not say absolutely that he observes chance in all things, but "time and chance," that is to say, that defects may be found in these things according to some order of time.
Reply Obj. 2: Government implies a certain change effected by the governor in the things governed. Now every movement is the act of a movable thing, caused by the moving principle, as is laid down _Phys._ iii, 3. And every act is proportionate to that of which it is an act. Consequently, various movable things must be moved variously, even as regards movement by one and the same mover. Thus by the one art of the Divine governor, various things are variously governed according to their variety. Some, according to their nature, act of themselves, having dominion over their actions; and these are governed by G.o.d, not only in this, that they are moved by G.o.d Himself, Who works in them interiorly; but also in this, that they are induced by Him to do good and to fly from evil, by precepts and prohibitions, rewards and punishments. But irrational creatures which do not act but are acted upon, are not thus governed by G.o.d. Hence, when the Apostle says that "G.o.d hath no care for oxen," he does not wholly withdraw them from the Divine government, but only as regards the way in which rational creatures are governed.
Reply Obj. 3: The rational creature governs itself by its intellect and will, both of which require to be governed and perfected by the Divine intellect and will. Therefore above the government whereby the rational creature governs itself as master of its own act, it requires to be governed by G.o.d.
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SIXTH ARTICLE [I, Q. 103, Art. 6]
Whether all things are immediately governed by G.o.d?
Objection 1: It would seem that all things are governed by G.o.d immediately. For Gregory of Nyssa (Nemesius, De Nat. Hom.) reproves the opinion of Plato who divides providence into three parts. The first he ascribes to the supreme G.o.d, who watches over heavenly things and all universals; the second providence he attributes to the secondary deities, who go the round of the heavens to watch over generation and corruption; while he ascribes a third providence to certain spirits who are guardians on earth of human actions.
Therefore it seems that all things are immediately governed by G.o.d.
Obj. 2: Further, it is better that a thing be done by one, if possible, than by many, as the Philosopher says (Phys. viii, 6). But G.o.d can by Himself govern all things without any intermediary cause.
Therefore it seems that He governs all things immediately.
Obj. 3: Further, in G.o.d nothing is defective or imperfect. But it seems to be imperfect in a ruler to govern by means of others; thus an earthly king, by reason of his not being able to do everything himself, and because he cannot be everywhere at the same time, requires to govern by means of ministers. Therefore G.o.d governs all things immediately.
_On the contrary,_ Augustine says (De Trin. iii, 4): "As the lower and grosser bodies are ruled in a certain orderly way by bodies of greater subtlety and power; so all bodies are ruled by the rational spirit of life; and the sinful and unfaithful spirit is ruled by the good and just spirit of life; and this spirit by G.o.d Himself."
_I answer that,_ In government there are two things to be considered; the design of government, which is providence itself; and the execution of the design. As to the design of government, G.o.d governs all things immediately; whereas in its execution, He governs some things by means of others.
The reason of this is that as G.o.d is the very essence of goodness, so everything must be attributed to G.o.d in its highest degree of goodness. Now the highest degree of goodness in any practical order, design or knowledge (and such is the design of government) consists in knowing the individuals acted upon; as the best physician is not the one who can only give his attention to general principles, but who can consider the least details; and so on in other things.
Therefore we must say that G.o.d has the design of the government of all things, even of the very least.
But since things which are governed should be brought to perfection by government, this government will be so much the better in the degree the things governed are brought to perfection. Now it is a greater perfection for a thing to be good in itself and also the cause of goodness in others, than only to be good in itself.
Therefore G.o.d so governs things that He makes some of them to be causes of others in government; as a master, who not only imparts knowledge to his pupils, but gives also the faculty of teaching others.
Reply Obj. 1: Plato"s opinion is to be rejected, because he held that G.o.d did not govern all things immediately, even in the design of government; this is clear from the fact that he divided providence, which is the design of government, into three parts.
Reply Obj. 2: If G.o.d governed alone, things would be deprived of the perfection of causality. Wherefore all that is effected by many would not be accomplished by one.
Reply Obj. 3: That an earthly king should have ministers to execute his laws is a sign not only of his being imperfect, but also of his dignity; because by the ordering of ministers the kingly power is brought into greater evidence.
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SEVENTH ARTICLE [I, Q. 103, Art. 7]
Whether Anything Can Happen Outside the Order of the Divine Government?
Objection 1: It would seem possible that something may occur outside the order of the Divine government. For Boethius says (De Consol.
iii) that "G.o.d disposes all for good." Therefore, if nothing happens outside the order of the Divine government, it would follow that no evil exists.
Obj. 2: Further, nothing that is in accordance with the pre-ordination of a ruler occurs by chance. Therefore, if nothing occurs outside the order of the Divine government, it follows that there is nothing fortuitous and casual.
Obj. 3: Further, the order of Divine Providence is certain and unchangeable; because it is in accordance with the eternal design.
Therefore, if nothing happens outside the order of the Divine government, it follows that all things happen by necessity, and nothing is contingent; which is false. Therefore it is possible for something to occur outside the order of the Divine government.
_On the contrary,_ It is written (Esther 13:9): "O Lord, Lord, almighty King, all things are in Thy power, and there is none that can resist Thy will."
_I answer that,_ It is possible for an effect to result outside the order of some particular cause; but not outside the order of the universal cause. The reason of this is that no effect results outside the order of a particular cause, except through some other impeding cause; which other cause must itself be reduced to the first universal cause; as indigestion may occur outside the order of the nutritive power by some such impediment as the coa.r.s.eness of the food, which again is to be ascribed to some other cause, and so on till we come to the first universal cause. Therefore as G.o.d is the first universal cause, not of one genus only, but of all being in general, it is impossible for anything to occur outside the order of the Divine government; but from the very fact that from one point of view something seems to evade the order of Divine providence considered in regard to one particular cause, it must necessarily come back to that order as regards some other cause.
Reply Obj. 1: There is nothing wholly evil in the world, for evil is ever founded on good, as shown above (Q. 48, A. 3). Therefore something is said to be evil through its escaping from the order of some particular good. If it wholly escaped from the order of the Divine government, it would wholly cease to exist.
Reply Obj. 2: Things are said to be fortuitous as regards some particular cause from the order of which they escape. But as to the order of Divine providence, "nothing in the world happens by chance,"
as Augustine declares (QQ. 83, qu. 24).
Reply Obj. 3: Certain effects are said to be contingent as compared to their proximate causes, which may fail in their effects; and not as though anything could happen entirely outside the order of Divine government. The very fact that something occurs outside the order of some proximate cause, is owing to some other cause, itself subject to the Divine government.
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EIGHTH ARTICLE [I, Q. 103, Art. 8]
Whether anything can resist the order of the Divine government?
Objection 1: It would seem possible that some resistance can be made to the order of the Divine government. For it is written (Isa. 3:8): "Their tongue and their devices are against the Lord."
Obj. 2: Further, a king does not justly punish those who do not rebel against his commands. Therefore if no one rebelled against G.o.d"s commands, no one would be justly punished by G.o.d.
Obj. 3: Further, everything is subject to the order of the Divine government. But some things oppose others. Therefore some things rebel against the order of the Divine government.