Reply Obj. 1: Even nature uses several means to one intent, in order to do something more fittingly: as two eyes for seeing; and the same can be observed in other matters.
Reply Obj. 2: As Chrysostom [*Athanasius, Orat. De Incarn. Verb.]
says: "Christ had come in order to destroy death, not His own, (for since He is life itself, death could not be His), but men"s death.
Hence it was not by reason of His being bound to die that He laid His body aside, but because the death He endured was inflicted on Him by men. But even if His body had sickened and dissolved in the sight of all men, it was not befitting Him who healed the infirmities of others to have his own body afflicted with the same. And even had He laid His body aside without any sickness, and had then appeared, men would not have believed Him when He spoke of His resurrection. For how could Christ"s victory over death appear, unless He endured it in the sight of all men, and so proved that death was vanquished by the incorruption of His body?"
Reply Obj. 3: Although the devil a.s.sailed man unjustly, nevertheless, on account of sin, man was justly left by G.o.d under the devil"s bondage. And therefore it was fitting that through justice man should be delivered from the devil"s bondage by Christ making satisfaction on his behalf in the Pa.s.sion. This was also a fitting means of overthrowing the pride of the devil, "who is a deserter from justice, and covetous of sway"; in that Christ "should vanquish him and deliver man, not merely by the power of His G.o.dhead, but likewise by the justice and lowliness of the Pa.s.sion," as Augustine says (De Trin. xiii).
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FOURTH ARTICLE [III, Q. 46, Art. 4]
Whether Christ Ought to Have Suffered on the Cross?
Objection 1: It would seem that Christ ought not to have suffered on the cross. For the truth ought to conform to the figure. But in all the sacrifices of the Old Testament which prefigured Christ the beasts were slain with a sword and afterwards consumed by fire.
Therefore it seems that Christ ought not to have suffered on a cross, but rather by the sword or by fire.
Obj. 2: Further, Damascene says (De Fide Orth. iii) that Christ ought not to a.s.sume "dishonoring afflictions." But death on a cross was most dishonoring and ignominious; hence it is written (Wis. 2:20): "Let us condemn Him to a most shameful death." Therefore it seems that Christ ought not to have undergone the death of the cross.
Obj. 3: Further, it was said of Christ (Matt. 21:9): "Blessed is He that cometh in the name of the Lord." But death upon the cross was a death of malediction, as we read Deut. 21:23: "He is accursed of G.o.d that hangeth on a tree." Therefore it does not seem fitting for Christ to be crucified.
_On the contrary,_ It is written (Phil. 2:8): "He became obedient unto death, even the death of the cross."
_I answer that,_ It was most fitting that Christ should suffer the death of the cross.
First of all, as an example of virtue. For Augustine thus writes (QQ.
lx.x.xiii, qu. 25): "G.o.d"s Wisdom became man to give us an example in righteousness of living. But it is part of righteous living not to stand in fear of things which ought not to be feared. Now there are some men who, although they do not fear death in itself, are yet troubled over the manner of their death. In order, then, that no kind of death should trouble an upright man, the cross of this Man had to be set before him, because, among all kinds of death, none was more execrable, more fear-inspiring, than this."
Secondly, because this kind of death was especially suitable in order to atone for the sin of our first parent, which was the plucking of the apple from the forbidden tree against G.o.d"s command. And so, to atone for that sin, it was fitting that Christ should suffer by being fastened to a tree, as if restoring what Adam had purloined; according to Ps. 68:5: "Then did I pay that which I took not away."
Hence Augustine says in a sermon on the Pa.s.sion [*Cf. Serm. ci De Tempore]: "Adam despised the command, plucking the apple from the tree: but all that Adam lost, Christ found upon the cross."
The third reason is because, as Chrysostom says in a sermon on the Pa.s.sion (De Cruce et Latrone i, ii): "He suffered upon a high rood and not under a roof, in order that the nature of the air might be purified: and the earth felt a like benefit, for it was cleansed by the flowing of the blood from His side." And on John 3:14: "The Son of man must be lifted up," Theophylact says: "When you hear that He was lifted up, understand His hanging on high, that He might sanctify the air who had sanctified the earth by walking upon it."
The fourth reason is, because, by dying on it, He prepares for us an ascent into heaven, as Chrysostom [*Athanasius, vide A, III, ad 2]
says. Hence it is that He says (John 12:32): "If I be lifted up from the earth, I will draw all things to Myself."
The fifth reason is because it is befitting the universal salvation of the entire world. Hence Gregory of Nyssa observes (In Christ.
Resurr., Orat. i) that "the shape of the cross extending out into four extremes from their central point of contact denotes the power and the providence diffused everywhere of Him who hung upon it."
Chrysostom [*Athanasius, vide A. III, ad 2] also says that upon the cross "He dies with outstretched hands in order to draw with one hand the people of old, and with the other those who spring from the Gentiles."
The sixth reason is because of the various virtues denoted by this cla.s.s of death. Hence Augustine in his book on the grace of the Old and New Testament (Ep. cxl) says: "Not without purpose did He choose this cla.s.s of death, that He might be a teacher of that breadth, and height, and length, and depth," of which the Apostle speaks (Eph.
3:18): "For breadth is in the beam, which is fixed transversely above; this appertains to good works, since the hands are stretched out upon it. Length is the tree"s extent from the beam to the ground; and there it is planted--that is, it stands and abides--which is the note of longanimity. Height is in that portion of the tree which remains over from the transverse beam upwards to the top, and this is at the head of the Crucified, because He is the supreme desire of souls of good hope. But that part of the tree which is hidden from view to hold it fixed, and from which the entire rood springs, denotes the depth of gratuitous grace." And, as Augustine says (Tract. cxix in Joan.): "The tree upon which were fixed the members of Him dying was even the chair of the Master teaching."
The seventh reason is because this kind of death responds to very many figures. For, as Augustine says in a sermon on the Pa.s.sion (Serm. ci De Tempore), an ark of wood preserved the human race from the waters of the Deluge; at the exodus of G.o.d"s people from Egypt, Moses with a rod divided the sea, overthrew Pharaoh and saved the people of G.o.d. the same Moses dipped his rod into the water, changing it from bitter to sweet; at the touch of a wooden rod a salutary spring gushed forth from a spiritual rock; likewise, in order to overcome Amalec, Moses stretched forth his arms with rod in hand; lastly, G.o.d"s law is entrusted to the wooden Ark of the Covenant; all of which are like steps by which we mount to the wood of the cross.
Reply Obj. 1: The altar of holocausts, upon which the sacrifices of animals were immolated, was constructed of timbers, as is set forth Ex. 27; and in this respect the truth answers to the figure; but "it is not necessary for it to be likened in every respect, otherwise it would not be a likeness," but the reality, as Damascene says (De Fide Orth. iii). But, in particular, as Chrysostom [*Athanasius, vide A, III, ad 2] says: "His head is not cut off, as was done to John; nor was He sawn in twain, like Isaias, in order that His entire and indivisible body might obey death, and that there might be no excuse for them who want to divide the Church." While, instead of material fire, there was the spiritual fire of charity in Christ"s holocaust.
Reply Obj. 2: Christ refused to undergo dishonorable sufferings which are allied with defects of knowledge, or of grace, or even of virtue, but not those injuries inflicted from without--nay, more, as is written Heb. 12:2: "He endured the cross, despising the shame."
Reply Obj. 3: As Augustine says (Contra Faust. xiv), sin is accursed, and, consequently, so is death, and mortality, which comes of sin.
"But Christ"s flesh was mortal, "having the resemblance of the flesh of sin""; and hence Moses calls it "accursed," just as the Apostle calls it "sin," saying (2 Cor. 5:21): "Him that knew no sin, for us He hath made sin"--namely, because of the penalty of sin. "Nor is there greater ignominy on that account, because he said: "He is accursed of G.o.d."" For, "unless G.o.d had hated sin, He would never have sent His Son to take upon Himself our death, and to destroy it.
Acknowledge, then, that it was for us He took the curse upon Himself, whom you confess to have died for us." Hence it is written (Gal.
3:13): "Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law, being made a curse for us."
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FIFTH ARTICLE [III, Q. 46, Art. 5]
Whether Christ Endured All Suffering?
Objection 1: It would seem that Christ did endure all sufferings, because Hilary (De Trin. x) says: "G.o.d"s only-begotten Son testifies that He endured every kind of human sufferings in order to accomplish the sacrament of His death, when with bowed head He gave up the ghost." It seems, therefore, that He did endure all human sufferings.
Obj. 2: Further, it is written (Isa. 52:13): "Behold My servant shall understand, He shall be exalted and extolled, and shall be exceeding high; as many as have been astonished at Him [Vulg.: "thee"], so shall His visage be inglorious among men, and His form among the sons of men." But Christ was exalted in that He had all grace and all knowledge, at which many were astonished in admiration thereof.
Therefore it seems that He was "inglorious," by enduring every human suffering.
Obj. 3: Further, Christ"s Pa.s.sion was ordained for man"s deliverance from sin, as stated above (A. 3). But Christ came to deliver men from every kind of sin. Therefore He ought to have endured every kind of suffering.
_On the contrary,_ It is written (John 19:32): "The soldiers therefore came: and they broke the legs of the first, and of the other who was crucified with Him; but after they were come to Jesus, when they saw that He was already dead, they did not break His legs."
Consequently, He did not endure every human suffering.
_I answer that,_ Human sufferings may be considered under two aspects. First of all, specifically, and in this way it was not necessary for Christ to endure them all, since many are mutually exclusive, as burning and drowning; for we are dealing now with sufferings inflicted from without, since it was not beseeming for Him to endure those arising from within, such as bodily ailments, as already stated (Q. 14, A. 4). But, speaking generically, He did endure every human suffering. This admits of a threefold acceptance.
First of all, on the part of men: for He endured something from Gentiles and from Jews; from men and from women, as is clear from the women servants who accused Peter. He suffered from the rulers, from their servants and from the mob, according to Ps. 2:1, 2: "Why have the Gentiles raged, and the people devised vain things? The kings of the earth stood up, and the princes met together, against the Lord and against His Christ." He suffered from friends and acquaintances, as is manifest from Judas betraying and Peter denying Him.
Secondly, the same is evident on the part of the sufferings which a man can endure. For Christ suffered from friends abandoning Him; in His reputation, from the blasphemies hurled at Him; in His honor and glory, from the mockeries and the insults heaped upon Him; in things, for He was despoiled of His garments; in His soul, from sadness, weariness, and fear; in His body, from wounds and scourgings.
Thirdly, it may be considered with regard to His bodily members. In His head He suffered from the crown of piercing thorns; in His hands and feet, from the fastening of the nails; on His face from the blows and spittle; and from the lashes over His entire body. Moreover, He suffered in all His bodily senses: in touch, by being scourged and nailed; in taste, by being given vinegar and gall to drink; in smell, by being fastened to the gibbet in a place reeking with the stench of corpses, "which is called Calvary"; in hearing, by being tormented with the cries of blasphemers and scorners; in sight, by beholding the tears of His Mother and of the disciple whom He loved.
Reply Obj. 1: Hilary"s words are to be understood as to all cla.s.ses of sufferings, but not as to their kinds.
Reply Obj. 2: The likeness is sustained, not as to the number of the sufferings and graces, but as to their greatness; for, as He was uplifted above others in gifts of graces, so was He lowered beneath others by the ignominy of His sufferings.
Reply Obj. 3: The very least one of Christ"s sufferings was sufficient of itself to redeem the human race from all sins; but as to fittingness, it sufficed that He should endure all cla.s.ses of sufferings, as stated above.
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SIXTH ARTICLE [III, Q. 46, Art. 6]
Whether the Pain of Christ"s Pa.s.sion Was Greater Than All Other Pains?
Objection 1: It would seem that the pain of Christ"s Pa.s.sion was not greater than all other pains. For the sufferer"s pain is increased by the sharpness and the duration of the suffering. But some of the martyrs endured sharper and more prolonged pains than Christ, as is seen in St. Lawrence, who was roasted upon a gridiron; and in St.
Vincent, whose flesh was torn with iron pincers. Therefore it seems that the pain of the suffering Christ was not the greatest.
Obj. 2: Further, strength of soul mitigates pain, so much so that the Stoics held there was no sadness in the soul of a wise man; and Aristotle (Ethic. ii) holds that moral virtue fixes the mean in the pa.s.sions. But Christ had most perfect strength of soul. Therefore it seems that the greatest pain did not exist in Christ.
Obj. 3: Further, the more sensitive the sufferer is, the more acute will the pain be. But the soul is more sensitive than the body, since the body feels in virtue of the soul; also, Adam in the state of innocence seems to have had a body more sensitive than Christ had, who a.s.sumed a human body with its natural defects. Consequently, it seems that the pain of a sufferer in purgatory, or in h.e.l.l, or even Adam"s pain, if he suffered at all, was greater than Christ"s in the Pa.s.sion.
Obj. 4: Further, the greater the good lost, the greater the pain. But by sinning the sinner loses a greater good than Christ did when suffering; since the life of grace is greater than the life of nature: also, Christ, who lost His life, but was to rise again after three days, seems to have lost less than those who lose their lives and abide in death. Therefore it seems that Christ"s pain was not the greatest of all.
Obj. 5: Further, the victim"s innocence lessens the sting of his sufferings. But Christ died innocent, according to Jer. 9:19: "I was as a meek lamb, that is carried to be a victim." Therefore it seems that the pain of Christ"s Pa.s.sion was not the greatest.
Obj. 6: Further, there was nothing superfluous in Christ"s conduct.
But the slightest pain would have sufficed to secure man"s salvation, because from His Divine Person it would have had infinite virtue.