Reply Obj. 2: An angry man is said to be open, not because it is clear to him what he ought to do, but because he acts openly, without thought of hiding himself. This is due partly to the reason being hindered, so as not to discern what should be hidden and what done openly, nor to devise the means of hiding; and partly to the dilatation of the heart which pertains to magnanimity which is an effect of anger: wherefore the Philosopher says of the magnanimous man (Ethic. iv, 3) that "he is open in his hatreds and his friendships ... and speaks and acts openly." Desire, on the other hand, is said to lie low and to be cunning, because, in many cases, the pleasurable things that are desired, savor of shame and voluptuousness, wherein man wishes not to be seen. But in those things that savor of manliness and excellence, such as matters of vengeance, man seeks to be in the open.
Reply Obj. 3: As stated above (ad 1), the movement of anger begins in the reason, wherefore the juxtaposition of one contrary with another facilitates the judgment of reason, on the same grounds as it increases anger. For when a man who is possessed of honor or wealth, suffers a loss therein, the loss seems all the greater, both on account of the contrast, and because it was unforeseen. Consequently it causes greater grief: just as a great good, through being received unexpectedly, causes greater delight. And in proportion to the increase of the grief that precedes, anger is increased also.
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FOURTH ARTICLE [I-II, Q. 48, Art. 4]
Whether Anger Above All Causes Taciturnity?
Objection 1: It would seem that anger does not cause taciturnity.
Because taciturnity is opposed to speech. But increase in anger conduces to speech; as is evident from the degrees of anger laid down by Our Lord (Matt. 5:22): where He says: "Whosoever is angry with his brother"; and " ... whosoever shall say to his brother, "Raca""; and " ... whosoever shall say to his brother, "Thou fool.""
Therefore anger does not cause taciturnity.
Obj. 2: Further, through failing to obey reason, man sometimes breaks out into unbecoming words: hence it is written (Prov. 25:28): "As a city that lieth open and is not compa.s.sed with walls, so is a man that cannot refrain his own spirit in speaking." But anger, above all, hinders the judgment of reason, as stated above (A. 3).
Consequently above all it makes one break out into unbecoming words.
Therefore it does not cause taciturnity.
Obj. 3: Further, it is written (Matt. 12:34): "Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh." But anger, above all, causes a disturbance in the heart, as stated above (A. 2). Therefore above all it conduces to speech. Therefore it does not cause taciturnity.
_On the contrary,_ Gregory says (Moral. v, 30) that "when anger does not vent itself outwardly by the lips, inwardly it burns the more fiercely."
_I answer that,_ As stated above (A. 3; Q. 46, A. 4), anger both follows an act of reason, and hinders the reason: and in both respects it may cause taciturnity. On the part of the reason, when the judgment of reason prevails so far, that although it does not curb the appet.i.te in its inordinate desire for vengeance, yet it curbs the tongue from unbridled speech. Wherefore Gregory says (Moral. v, 30): "Sometimes when the mind is disturbed, anger, as if in judgment, commands silence." On the part of the impediment to reason because, as stated above (A. 2), the disturbance of anger reaches to the outward members, and chiefly to those members which reflect more distinctly the emotions of the heart, such as the eyes, face and tongue; wherefore, as observed above (A. 2), "the tongue stammers, the countenance takes fire, the eyes grow fierce."
Consequently anger may cause such a disturbance, that the tongue is altogether deprived of speech; and taciturnity is the result.
Reply Obj. 1: Anger sometimes goes so far as to hinder the reason from curbing the tongue: but sometimes it goes yet farther, so as to paralyze the tongue and other outward members.
And this suffices for the Reply to the Second Objection.
Reply Obj. 3: The disturbance of the heart may sometimes superabound to the extend that the movements of the outward members are hindered by the inordinate movement of the heart. Thence ensue taciturnity and immobility of the outward members; and sometimes even death. If, however, the disturbance be not so great, then "out of the abundance of the heart" thus disturbed, the mouth proceeds to speak.
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TREATISE ON HABITS (QQ. 49-54) ________________________
QUESTION 49
OF HABITS IN GENERAL, AS TO THEIR SUBSTANCE (In Four Articles)
After treating of human acts and pa.s.sions, we now pa.s.s on to the consideration of the principles of human acts, and firstly of intrinsic principles, secondly of extrinsic principles. The intrinsic principle is power and habit; but as we have treated of powers in the First Part (Q. 77, seqq.), it remains for us to consider them in general: in the second place we shall consider virtues and vices and other like habits, which are the principles of human acts.
Concerning habits in general there are four points to consider: First, the substance of habits; second, their subject; third, the cause of their generation, increase, and corruption; fourth, how they are distinguished from one another.
Under the first head, there are four points of inquiry:
(1) Whether habit is a quality?
(2) Whether it is a distinct species of quality?
(3) Whether habit implies an order to an act?
(4) Of the necessity of habit.
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FIRST ARTICLE [I-II, Q. 49, Art. 1]
Whether Habit Is a Quality?
Objection 1: It would seem that habit is not a quality. For Augustine says (QQ. lx.x.xiii, qu. 73): "this word "habit" is derived from the verb "to have."" But "to have" belongs not only to quality, but also to the other categories: for we speak of ourselves as "having"
quant.i.ty and money and other like things. Therefore habit is not a quality.
Obj. 2: Further, habit is reckoned as one of the predicaments; as may be clearly seen in the _Book on the Predicaments_ (Categor. vi). But one predicament is not contained under another. Therefore habit is not a quality.
Obj. 3: Further, "every habit is a disposition," as is stated in the _Book of the Predicaments_ (Categor. vi). Now disposition is "the order of that which has parts," as stated in _Metaph._ v, text. 24.
But this belongs to the predicament Position. Therefore habit is not a quality.
_On the contrary,_ The Philosopher says in the Book of Predicaments (Categor. vi) that "habit is a quality which is difficult to change."
_I answer that,_ This word _habitus_ (habit) is derived from _habere_ (to have). Now habit is taken from this word in two ways; in one way, inasmuch as man, or any other thing, is said to "have" something; in another way, inasmuch as a particular thing has a relation (_se habet_) either in regard to itself, or in regard to something else.
Concerning the first, we must observe that "to have," as said in regard to anything that is "had," is common to the various predicaments. And so the Philosopher puts "to have" among the "post-predicaments," so called because they result from the various predicaments; as, for instance, opposition, priority, posterity, and such like. Now among things which are had, there seems to be this distinction, that there are some in which there is no medium between the "haver" and that which is had: as, for instance, there is no medium between the subject and quality or quant.i.ty. Then there are some in which there is a medium, but only a relation: as, for instance, a man is said to have a companion or a friend. And, further, there are some in which there is a medium, not indeed an action or pa.s.sion, but something after the manner of action or pa.s.sion: thus, for instance, something adorns or covers, and something else is adorned or covered: wherefore the Philosopher says (Metaph. v, text. 25) that "a habit is said to be, as it were, an action or a pa.s.sion of the haver and that which is had"; as is the case in those things which we have about ourselves. And therefore these const.i.tute a special genus of things, which are comprised under the predicament of "habit": of which the Philosopher says (Metaph. v, text. 25) that "there is a habit between clothing and the man who is clothed."
But if "to have" be taken according as a thing has a relation in regard to itself or to something else; in that case habit is a quality; since this mode of having is in respect of some quality: and of this the Philosopher says (Metaph. v, text. 25) that "habit is a disposition whereby that which is disposed is disposed well or ill, and this, either in regard to itself or in regard to another: thus health is a habit." And in this sense we speak of habit now.
Wherefore we must say that habit is a quality.
Reply Obj. 1: This argument takes "to have" in the general sense: for thus it is common to many predicaments, as we have said.
Reply Obj. 2: This argument takes habit in the sense in which we understand it to be a medium between the haver, and that which is had: and in this sense it is a predicament, as we have said.
Reply Obj. 3: Disposition does always, indeed, imply an order of that which has parts: but this happens in three ways, as the Philosopher goes on at once to says (Metaph. v, text. 25): namely, "either as to place, or as to power, or as to species." "In saying this," as Simplicius observes in his _Commentary on the Predicaments,_ "he includes all dispositions: bodily dispositions, when he says "as to place,"" and this belongs to the predicament "Position," which is the order of parts in a place: "when he says "as to power," he includes all those dispositions which are in course of formation and not yet arrived at perfect usefulness," such as inchoate science and virtue: "and when he says, "as to species," he includes perfect dispositions, which are called habits," such as perfected science and virtue.
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SECOND ARTICLE [I-II, Q. 49, Art. 2]
Whether Habit Is a Distinct Species of Quality?
Objection 1: It would seem that habit is not a distinct species of quality. Because, as we have said (A. 1), habit, in so far as it is a quality, is "a disposition whereby that which is disposed is disposed well or ill." But this happens in regard to any quality: for a thing happens to be well or ill disposed in regard also to shape, and in like manner, in regard to heat and cold, and in regard to all such things. Therefore habit is not a distinct species of quality.
Obj. 2: Further, the Philosopher says in the _Book of the Predicaments_ (Categor. vi), that heat and cold are dispositions or habits, just as sickness and health. Therefore habit or disposition is not distinct from the other species of quality.
Obj. 3: Further, "difficult to change" is not a difference belonging to the predicament of quality, but rather to movement or pa.s.sion.
Now, no genus should be contracted to a species by a difference of another genus; but "differences should be proper to a genus," as the Philosopher says in _Metaph._ vii, text. 42. Therefore, since habit is "a quality difficult to change," it seems not to be a distinct species of quality.
_On the contrary,_ The Philosopher says in the _Book of the Predicaments_ (Categor. vi) that "one species of quality is habit and disposition."
_I answer that,_ The Philosopher in the _Book of Predicaments_ (Categor. vi) reckons disposition and habit as the first species of quality. Now Simplicius, in his _Commentary on the Predicaments,_ explains the difference of these species as follows. He says "that some qualities are natural, and are in their subject in virtue of its nature, and are always there: but some are advent.i.tious, being caused from without, and these can be lost. Now the latter," i.e. those which are advent.i.tious, "are habits and dispositions, differing in the point of being easily or difficultly lost. As to natural qualities, some regard a thing in the point of its being in a state of potentiality; and thus we have the second species of quality: while others regard a thing which is in act; and this either deeply rooted therein or only on its surface. If deeply rooted, we have the third species of quality: if on the surface, we have the fourth species of quality, as shape, and form which is the shape of an animated being." But this distinction of the species of quality seems unsuitable. For there are many shapes, and pa.s.sion-like qualities, which are not natural but advent.i.tious: and there are also many dispositions which are not advent.i.tious but natural, as health, beauty, and the like. Moreover, it does not suit the order of the species, since that which is the more natural is always first.
Therefore we must explain otherwise the distinction of dispositions and habits from other qualities. For quality, properly speaking, implies a certain mode of substance. Now mode, as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. iv, 3), "is that which a measure determines": wherefore it implies a certain determination according to a certain measure.
Therefore, just as that in accordance with which the material potentiality (_potentia materiae_) is determined to its substantial being, is called quality, which is a difference affecting the substance, so that, in accordance with the potentiality of the subject is determined to its accidental being, is called an accidental quality, which is also a kind of difference, as is clear from the Philosopher (Metaph. v, text. 19).
Now the mode o[r] determination of the subject to accidental being may be taken in regard to the very nature of the subject, or in regard to action, and pa.s.sion resulting from its natural principles, which are matter and form; or again in regard to quant.i.ty. If we take the mode or determination of the subject in regard to quant.i.ty, we shall then have the fourth species of quality. And because quant.i.ty, considered in itself, is devoid of movement, and does not imply the notion of good or evil, so it does not concern the fourth species of quality whether a thing be well or ill disposed, nor quickly or slowly transitory.