Here again there is a full commentary; but the only interpretation that we need notice is the first, "Salt denotes a prelate of the Church; for it is said in the Gospels, Ye are the salt of the earth."
When he composed these lines, Garland must surely have had his eye on ecclesiastical preferment.
Another line is interesting, as ill.u.s.trating the confusion between c and t in mediaeval ma.n.u.scripts:
Est katonque malum, katademon nascitur inde.
The commentary runs: "Kathon est idem quod malum. Inde dicitur kathodemon, i.e. spiritus malignus seu dyabolus, et venit a kathon, i.e. malum, et demon, sciens, quasi mala sciens." You will notice also the inconstancy of h, and the indifference to orthography which allows the same word to appear as katademon in the text and kathodemon in the commentary.
Garland"s _Textus_ is mostly Latin; but in the last composition of his life, the forty-two distiches ent.i.tled _Cornutus_, "one on the horns of a dilemma", he is mainly occupied with Greek words adopted into Latin: using of course Latin characters. Some specimens will show the mediaeval standards of Greek: I quote from the text and commentary edited in 1481 by John Drols.h.a.gen, who was master of the sixth cla.s.s at Zwolle.
Kyria chere geram cuius ph[=i]lantr[)o]pos est bar, Per te doxa theos nect[=e]n [)e]t [)v]r[=a]n[)i]c[)i]s ymas.
In the commentary we are told that Kyria means the Virgin: but we are to be careful not to write it with two r"s, for kirrios means a pig (I suppose [Greek: choiros]), and it would never do to say Kirrieleyson.
Chere is of course [Greek: chaire], salue. Geran (geram in the text) is interpreted sanctus, and seems from a lengthy discussion of it to be connected with [Greek: geron] and [Greek: ieros].[10] Philantropos (notice the quant.i.ties) is Christ, the Saviour. "Bar Grece est filius Latine." "Necten in Greco est venire Latine: vnde dicit Pristia.n.u.s in primo minoris, antropos necten, i.e. h.o.m.o venit." (For this remarkable form I can only suggest [Greek: enthein] or [Greek: hekein]: -en is probably the infinitive; ne might arise from en; and ct, through tt, from th.) Ymas is explained as n.o.bis, not vobis. The construction of the distich is then given: "Hail, sacred queen, whose son is the lover of men; through thee divine and heavenly glory comes to us."
Again:
"Clauiculis firmis theos antropos impos et ir mis Figor ob infirmi cosmos delicta, patir mi."
Impos = in pedibus. Ir = a hand (probably [Greek: cheir], transliterated into hir, and h dropped) and mis is explained as = mei, according to the form which occurs in Plautus and early Latin. The lines are an address from Christ to G.o.d, and are interpreted: "O my father, I G.o.d and man am fastened with hard nails in my feet and hands (upon the cross) for the sins of a weak world."
Another work dictated to Erasmus at Deventer was the metrical grammar of Eberhard of Bethune in Artois, composed in the twelfth century. Its name, _Graecismus_, was based upon a chapter, the eighth, devoted to the elementary study of Greek--a feature which const.i.tuted an advance on the current grammars of the age. A few extracts will show the character of the a.s.sistance it offered to the would-be Greek scholar.
[10] Cf. Gerasmus and Hierasmus as variations of the name Herasmus or Erasmus.
Quod sententia sit b[)o]l[)e] comprobat amphibol[=i]a, Quodque fides br[)o]g[)e] sit comprobat Allobroga.
The gloss explains the second line thus: "Dicitur ab alleos quod est alienum, et broge quod est fides, quasi alienus a fide"; and thus we learn that the Allobroges were a Burgundian people who were always breaking faith with the Romans.
Constat apud Grecos quod tertia littera cima est, Est quoque dulce c[)i]m[=e]n, inde c[)i]m[=e]t[)e]rium; Est [)v]n[)i]uersal[=e] c[)a]t[)a], fitque c[)a]tholicus inde, ...
C[=a]ta breuis pariter, c[=a]talogus venit hinc.
Die decas esse decem, designans inde decanum ...
Delon obscurum, Delius inde venit.
Ductio sit gogos, hinc isagoga venit.
Estque geneth mulier, inde gen[=e]th[=e][=u]m.
Here the confusion of c with t begins the misleading; which is carried further by the gloss, "Genetheum: locus subterraneus vbi habitant mulieres ad laborandum, et dicitur a geneth quod est mulier, et thesis positio, quia ibi ponebantur mulieres ad laborandum"; or "Genetheum: absconsio subterranea mulierum".
Estque decem gintos, dicas hinc esse viginti, Vt pentecoste, coste valebit idem.
Pos quoque pes tibi sit, compos tibi comprobat illud, Atque p[)e]dos puer est, hinc pedagogus erit.
Dic zoen animam, die ind[=e] z[=o][)e]c[)a]isychen.
This last word appears in eleven different forms in the ma.n.u.scripts.
The gloss interprets it plainly as "vita mea et anima mea"; but without this aid it must have been unintelligible to most readers, especially in such forms as zoychaysichen, zoycazyche, zoichasichen, zoyasichem.
The "breath of something better" which Hegius and Zinthius brought was seen in the subst.i.tution of the _Doctrinale_ of Alexander of Ville-Dieu, near Avranches (_fl._ 1200), as the school Latin grammar.
This also is a metrical composition; and it has the merit of being both shorter and also more correct. It was first printed at Venice by Wendelin of Spires (_c._ 1470), and after a moderate success in Italy, twenty-three editions in fourteen years, it was taken up in the North and quickly attained great popularity. By 1500 more than 160 editions had been printed, of the whole or of various parts, and in the next twenty years there were nearly another hundred, before it was superseded by more modern compositions, such as Linacre"s grammar, which held the field throughout Europe for a great part of the sixteenth century. The number of Deventer editions of the _Doctrinale_ is considerable, mostly containing the glosses of Hegius and Zinthius, which overwhelm the text with commentary; a single distich often receiving two pages of notes, so full of typographical abbreviations and so closely packed together as to be almost illegible. This very fullness, however, probably indicates a change in the method of teaching, which by quickening it up must indeed have put new life into it; for it would clearly have been impossible to dictate such lengthy commentaries, or the boys would have made hardly any progress.
Thirty years ago in England a schoolboy of eleven found himself supplied with abridged Latin and Greek dictionaries, out of which to build up larger familiarity with these languages. Erasmus at Deventer had no such endowments. A school of those days would have been thought excellently equipped if the head master and one or two of his a.s.sistants had possessed, in ma.n.u.script or in print, one or other of the famous vocabularies in which was ama.s.sed the etymological knowledge of the Middle Ages. Great books are costly, and scholars are ever poor. The normal method of acquiring a dictionary was, no doubt, to construct it for oneself; the schoolboy laying foundations and building upon them as he rose from form to form, and the mature student constantly enlarging his plan throughout his life and adding to it the treasures gained by wider reading. A sure method, though necessarily circ.u.mscribed, at least in the beginning. We can imagine how men so rooted and grounded must have shaken their heads over "learning made easy", when the press had begun to diffuse cheap dictionaries, which spared the younger generation such labour.
Though they were scarcely "for the use of schools", it will repay us to examine some of the mediaeval dictionaries which lasted down to the Renaissance in general use; for they formed the background of educational resources, and from them we can estimate the standards of teaching attained in the late fifteenth century. First the _Catholicon_, compiled by John Balbi, a Dominican of Genoa, and completed on 7 March 1286; a work of such importance to the age we are considering that it was printed at Mainz as early as 1460, and there were many editions later. Badius" at Paris, 1506, for instance, was reprinted in 1510, 1511, 1514. In his preface Balbi announces that his dictionary is to be on the alphabetical principle; and, what is even more surprising to us, he goes on to explain at great length what the alphabetical principle is. Thus: "I am going to treat of amo and bibo.
I shall take amo before bibo, because a is the first letter in amo and b is the first letter in bibo; and a is before b in the alphabet.
Again I have to treat of abeo and adeo. I shall take abeo before adeo, because b is the second letter in abeo and d is the second letter in adeo; and b is before d in the alphabet." And so he goes on: amatus will be treated before amor, imprudens before impudens, iusticia before iustus, polisintheton before polissenus--the two last being from the Greek. "But note", he continues, "that in polissenus, s is the fifth letter and also the sixth, because s is repeated there. A repet.i.tion is therefore equivalent to a double letter; and thus this arrangement will show when l, m, n, r, s or indeed any other letter is to be doubled. And in order that the reader may find quickly what he seeks, whenever the first or second letter of a word is changed, we shall mark it with azure blue." His preface ends with an appeal. "This arrangement I have worked out with great labour; yet not I, but the grace of G.o.d with me. I entreat you therefore, reader, do not contemn my work as something rude and barbarous."
The most striking feature of the dictionary is its etymology. Almost every word is supplied with a derivation, often very far-fetched. Thus glisco is derived from "glykis, quod est dulcis; que enim dulcia sunt desiderare solemus": gliscere therefore is equivalent to desiderare, crescere, pinguescere and several other words. After this we are not surprised at the following account of a dormouse. "Glis a glisco: quoddam genus murium quod multum dormit. Et dicitur sic quod sompnus facit glires pingues et crescere." Here is another piece of natural history. "Irundo ab aer dicitur: quia non residens sed in aere capiens cibos edat, quasi in aere edens." There is simplicity in the following: "Nix a nubes, quia a nube venit." Again: "Ouis ab offero vel obluo: quia antiquitus in inicio non tauri sed oues in sacrificio mactarentur. Priscia.n.u.s vero dicit quod descendit a Greco ... oys."
Besides his philology the good Dominican was also a theologian; and when he comes to the words upon which his world was built, he cannot dismiss them as lightly as the snow. So Antichristus has two columns, that is to say a folio page: confiteor 1, conscientia 2, ordo 2, virgo two columns.
Much light is thrown on Balbi"s work by the dictionary of his predecessor, Huguitio of Pisa, Bishop of Ferrara (d. 1210). The t.i.tle of this, _Liber deriuationum_, indicates its character. Instead of the alphabetical principle the words are arranged according to their etymology; all that are a.s.signed to a given root being grouped together. This made it necessary, or at any rate desirable, to find a derivation for every word; and with ingenuity to aid this was done as far as possible. Besides derivatives even compounds came under the simple root; and in consequence it must have been extremely difficult to find a word unless one already knew a good deal about it. It is no wonder that the book was never printed; although it occurs frequently in the catalogues of mediaeval libraries.
A few examples will suffice. Under capio are found capax, captiuus, capillus, caput with all its derivatives, anceps, praeceps, principium, caper, capus, caupo, cippus, scipio, ceptrum; and even ca.s.sis and catena. Similarly under nubo come nubes, nebula, nebulo, nix, niger, nimpha, limpha, limpidus. With such a book as one"s only support it was clearly of the highest importance to be good at etymology; with ouis, for instance, not to be troubled by Priscian"s fanciful derivation from the Greek, but to know that it came from offero, and was therefore to be found under fero; or again to look for hirundo under aer. Nor need we be surprised at the strange derivations upon which arguments were sometimes founded: that Sprenger, the inquisitor, could explain femina "quia minorem habet et seruat fidem"; or the preacher over whom Erasmus" Folly makes merry, find authority for burning heretics in the Apostle"s command "Haeretic.u.m deuita".
We are now in a position to understand Balbi"s performance in the _Catholicon_. From the apologetic tone of his preface it is clear that he felt Huguitio"s work to be the really scientific thing, the only book that a scholar would consult: but evidently experience had shown the difficulty of using it, and therefore for the weakness of lesser men like himself he reverted to the sequence of the alphabet. In c.u.mbering himself with derivations, too, he shows that he knows his place. He may have had a glimmering that some of them were absurd; and that Priscian with his reference to the Greek was a safer guide. But to a scholar brought up on Huguitio derivations were of the first importance; and to leave them out would have been only another mark of inferiority.
Beyond Huguitio we may go back to Papias, a learned Lombard (_fl._ 1051), whose Vocabulary was still in use in the fifteenth century, and was printed at Milan in 1476. The editions of it are far fewer than those of the _Catholicon_; a fact which presumably points to the superiority of the later work. Papias also used the alphabetical principle; and his lengthy explanation of it, which lacks, however, the lucidity of Balbi"s, probably implies that his predecessors had adopted the etymological arrangement by derivations, or the divisions of Isidore according to subjects. In a few cases he makes concession to etymology, by giving derivatives under their root, e.g. under ago come all the words derived from it: but he has regard to the weak, and places them also in their right alphabetical position. Not many derivations are given; but one of them is well known. Lucus is defined as "locus amenus, vbi multae arbores sunt. Lucus dictus [Greek: kata antiphrasin] quia caret luce pro nimia arborum vmbra; vel a colocando crebris luminibus (_aliter_ uiminibus), siue a luce, quod in eo lucebant funalia propter nemorum tenebras." This in the hands of Balbi becomes "per contrarium lucus dicitur a lucendo", or, as we say popularly, "lucus a non lucendo." December, again, is derived from decem and imbres "quibus abundare solet"; and so too the other numbered months.
It is noticeable that Papias has some knowledge of Greek, for derivations in Greek letters occur, e.g. "Acrocerauni: montes propter alt.i.tudinem & fulminum iactus dicti. Graece enim fulmen [Greek: keraunos] ceraunos dicitur, et acra [Greek: akra] sumitas"; and a great many Greek and Hebrew words are given transliterated into Latin, ballein, f.a.gein, Ennosigaeus. Like Balbi, Papias travels outside the limits of a mere dictionary, and his interests are not restricted to theology. Aetas draws him into an account of the various ages of the world, regnum into a view of its kingdoms. Carmen provokes 7 columns, 3 folio pages, on metres; lapis 2 columns on precious stones. Italy receives 2 columns, and of a column are given to St. Paul.
Contrariwise there is often great brevity in his interpretations: "Samium locus est", "heroici antiqui", "mederi curare". His treatment of miraculum is interesting; "A miracle is to raise the dead to life; but it is a wonder (mirabile) for a fire to be kindled in the water, or for a man to move his ears." The next heading is mirabilia, for which his examples are taken from the ends of the earth. He begins: "Listen. Among the Garamantes is a spring so cold by day that you cannot drink it, so hot at night that you cannot put your finger into it." A fig-tree in Egypt, apples of Sodom, the non-deciduous trees of an island in India--these are the other travellers" tales which serve him for wonders.
The alphabetical method did not hold its own without struggle. It prevailed in Robert Stepha.n.u.s" Latin _Thesaurus_ (1532), the most considerable work of its kind that had been compiled since the invention of printing; but Dolet"s Commentaries on the Latin Tongue (1536), are practically a reversion to the arrangement by roots. Henry Stepha.n.u.s" Greek _Thesaurus_ (1572) and Scapula"s well-known abridgement of it (1579) are both radical; and as late as the seventeenth century this method was employed in the first Dictionary of the French Academy, which was designed in 1638 but not published till 1694. That, however, was its last appearance. The preface to the Academy"s second Dictionary (1700 and 1718), after comparing the two methods, says: "The arrangement by roots is the most scientific, and the most instructive to the student; but it is not suited to the impatience of the French people, and so the Academy has felt obliged to abandon it."[11] The ordinary user of dictionaries to-day would be surprised at being called impatient for expecting the words to be put in alphabetical order.
[11] Cf. R.C. Christie, _etienne Dolet_, ch. xi.
In mediaeval times there was one very real obstacle to the use of the alphabetical method, and that was the uncertainty of spelling. Both Papias and Balbi allude to it in their prefaces; but it did not deter them from their enterprise. Even in the days of printing language takes a long time to crystallize down into accepted forms, correct and incorrect. You may see Dutchess with a t at Blenheim, well within the eighteenth century, and forgo has only recently decided to give up its e. In the days of ma.n.u.scripts men spelt pretty much as they pleased, making very free even with their own names; and uncritical copyists, caring only to reproduce the word, and not troubling about the exact orthography of their original, did nothing to check the ever-growing variety. Such licence was agreeable for the imaginative, but it made despairing work for the compilers of dictionaries. Some of their difficulties may be given as examples. In the early days of minuscule writing, when writing-material was still scarce, to save s.p.a.ce it was common to write the letter e with a reversed cedilla beneath it to denote the diphthongs -ae and -oe. In the Middle Ages the cedilla was commonly dropped, leaving the e plain; and so mostly it remained until the sixteenth century revived the diphthong, or at least the two double letters.
At all periods down to 1600, some hands are found in which it is impossible to distinguish between c and t; and hence in mediaeval times, and even later, such forms as fatio, loto, pecieris, licterae are not infrequently found for facio, loco, petieris, litterae. An extreme example of the confusion which this variability must have caused is in the case of the fourteenth-century annalist, Nicholas Trivet, whose surname sometimes appears as Cerseth or Chereth.
The doubling of consonants, too, was often a matter of doubt, and the Middle Ages, possibly again for reasons of s.p.a.ce, used many words with single consonants instead of two--difficilimus, Sal.u.s.tius, consumare, comodum, opidum, fuise. The letter h was the source of infinite trouble. Sometimes it was surprisingly omitted, as in actenus, irundo, Oratius, ortus--in the latter cases perhaps under Italian influence; sometimes it appears unexpectedly, as in Therentius, Theutonia, Thurcae, Hysidorus, habundare, and even haspirafio; or in abhominor, where it bolstered up the derivation from h.o.m.o: or it might change its place from one consonant to another, as in calchographus, cartha.
Papias found it a great trouble, and indeed was quite muddled with it, placing hyppocrita, hippomanes among the h"s, but hippopedes and several others under the i"s, though without depriving them of initial h. In France, h between two short i"s was considered to need support, and so we find michi, nichil, occurring quite regularly. The difficulty of i and y was met by the suppression of the latter; so that though it sometimes appears unexpectedly, as in hysteria, it is only treated as i. Between f and ph there was much uncertainty; phas, phanum, propha.n.u.s are well-known forms, or conversely Christofer, flenbothomari, Flegeton. B and p were often confused, as in babtizare, plasphemus; and p made its way into such words as ampnis, dampnum, alumpnus. A triumph of absurd variation is achieved by Alexander Neckam, who begins a sentence "Coquinarii quoc.u.n.t".
With the increased learning of the Renaissance these varieties gradually disappear. The printers, too, rendered good service in promoting uniformity, each firm having its standard orthography for doubtful cases, as printers do to-day. The use of e for ae is abundant in the first books printed North of the Alps; but it steadily diminishes, and by 1500 has almost vanished. In ma.n.u.scripts, where it was easy to forget to add the cedilla, the plain e lasts much longer.
There was also confusion in the reverse direction. Well into the sixteenth century the cedilla is often found wrongly added to words such as puer, equus, eruditus, epistola; in 1550 the Froben firm was still regularly printing aedo, aeditio; and in the index to an edition of Aquinas, Venice, 1593, aenigma and Aegyptus, spelt in this way, are only to be found under e. Other forms of error persisted long. To the end of his life Erasmus usually wrote irito, oportunus; in 1524 he could still use Oratius. The town of Boppard on the Rhine he styles indifferently Bobardia or Popardia: just as, much later, editors described the elder Camerarius of Bamberg as Bapenbergensis in 1583, as Pabepergensis in 1595. As late as 1540 a little book was printed in Paris to demonstrate that michi and nichil were incorrect.
In such a state of flux we need not wonder that the mediaeval writers of dictionaries found the alphabetical arrangement not the way of simplification they had hoped, but rather to be full of pitfalls; nor again that the men of the Renaissance thought the work of their predecessors so lamentably inadequate. We shall do better to admire in both cases the brilliance and constancy which could achieve so much with such imperfect instruments.
To complete our sketch of the books on which the scholars of the fifteenth century had to rely we may consider two more. The first is the great encyclopaedia of Vincent of Beauvais, a Dominican friar (_c._ 1190-1264). It was printed in 1472-6 by Mentelin at Strasburg, in six enormous volumes; and no one can properly appreciate the magnitude of the work who has not tried to lift these volumes about.
Vincent was not the first to attempt this encyclopaedic enterprise, for his work is based on that of another Frenchman, Helinand, who died in 1229. In his preface he states that his prior had urged him to reduce his _Speculum_ to a manual; being doubtless an old man, and appalled at these colossal fruits of his friar"s industry. But this was too much for the proud author after all his labour. He did, however, consent to cut it up into portions. The _Speculum naturale_ gives a description of the world in all its parts, animal and vegetable and mineral; the _Speculum doctrinale_ taught how to practise the arts and sciences; the _Speculum historiale_ embraced the world"s history down to 1250; and the _Speculum morale_, which is perhaps not by Vincent, found room for the philosophies.
But few libraries can have possessed this work in full. Our other book was much more compa.s.sable and more widely circulated. Its author was a certain Johannes Marchesinus, of whom so little is known that his date has been put both at 1300 and at 1466. Even the t.i.tle of the book was uncertain. Marchesinus names it Mammotrectus or Mammetractus, which he explains as "led by a pedagogue"; but a current form of the name was Mammothreptus, which was interpreted as "brought up by one"s grandmother". The book consists of a commentary on the whole Bible, chapter by chapter; and also upon the _Legenda Sanctorum_, upon various sermons and homilies, responses, antiphons, and hymns, with notes on the Hebrew months, ecclesiastical vestments, and other subjects likely to be useful to students in the Church, especial emphasis being laid on p.r.o.nunciation and quant.i.ty. It was intended, Marchesinus tells us in his preface, for the use of the poor clergy, to aid them in writing sermons and in reading difficult Hebrew names; and from the sympathy with which he enters into their troubles, it seems clear that he knew them from personal experience.
From its scope the book might be expected to be as large as Vincent"s _Speculum_, but in fact it can be printed in a quarto volume. It was not intended to compete with the great commentaries of Peter the Lombard, or Nicholas Lyra, or Hugh of St. Victor, which fill many folios. It was to be within reach of the poor parish priest, and so must not be costly. But the surprising part of the book is its triviality. With so little s.p.a.ce available, one would have expected to find nothing admitted that was not important: but the fact is that it has nothing which is not elementary. There is nothing historical, nothing theological, only a few simple points of grammar and quant.i.ty.
For example, in the story of Deborah, Judges iv, the commentary runs as follows:
2. Sisara: middle syllable short.
4. Debbora: middle syllable short. Prophetes masc., Prophetis fem.; meaning, propheta.
10. Accersitis: last syllable but one long; meaning, vocatis.