a. He can _compound"_ medicine like a druggist.
b. Nitroglycerine is a dangerous _com"pound_.
As a further ill.u.s.tration, read the following stanza of poetry, especially accenting the syllables as marked:
Tell" me not" in mourn"ful num"bers, "Life" is but" an emp"ty dream"!"
For" the soul" is dead" that slum"bers, And" things are" not what" they seem".
This is called scanning, and all verse may be scanned in the same way.
It is an excellent drill in learning the art of throwing the stress of the voice on any syllable that may be desired.
Two Laws of Word-Formation.
We are now prepared to consider the two great laws governing word-formation. These are:
1. Law: All vowels in combination with consonants are naturally short unless the long sound is given by combination with other vowels, by accent, or by position in the syllable with reference to consonants.
2. Law: Words derived from other words by the addition of prefixes or suffixes always retain the original form as far as possible.
1. We are likely to suppose that the natural or original sound of a vowel is the long sound, because that is the sound we give it when naming it in the alphabet. If we will examine a number of words, however, we shall soon see that in combination with consonants all vowels have a tendency to a short or obscure p.r.o.nunciation. The sounds of the consonants are naturally obscure, and they draw the vowels to a similar obscurity.
Since such is the case, when a vowel is given its long sound there is always a special reason for it. In the simple words _not, pin, her, rip, rid, cut, met,_ we have the short sounds of the vowels; but if we desire the long sounds we must add a silent _e,_ which is not p.r.o.nounced as _e,_ but has its sound value in the greater stress put upon the vowel with which it is connected. By adding silent _e_ to the above words we have _note, pine, here, ripe, ride, mete_. In each of these cases the _e_ follows the consonant, though really combining with the vowel before the consonant; but if we place the additional _e_ just after the first _e_ in _met_ we have _meet,_ which is a word even more common than _mete. E_ is the only vowel that may be placed after the consonant and still combine with the vowel before it {while being silent}; but nearly all the other vowels may be placed beside the vowel that would otherwise be short in order to make it long, and sometimes this added vowel is placed before as well as after the vowel to be lengthened. Thus we have _boat, bait, beat, field, chief,_ etc. There are a very, very few irregular words in which the vowel sound has been kept short in spite of the added vowel, as for instance, _head, sieve,_ etc. It appears that with certain consonants the long sound is especially difficult, and so in the case of very common words the wear of common speech has shortened the vowels in spite of original efforts to strengthen them.
This is peculiarly true of the consonant _v,_ and the combination _th,_ and less so of _s_ and _z_. So in {(I) }_live, have, give, love, shove, move,_ etc., the vowel sound is more or less obscured even in spite of the silent _e,_ though in the less common words _alive, behave,_ etc., the long sound strengthened by accent has not been lost. So as a rule two silent vowels are now used to make the vowel before the _v_ long, as in _leave, believe, receive, beeves, weave,_ etc. In the single word _sieve_ the vowel remains short in spite of two silent vowels added to strengthen it. Two vowels are also sometimes required to strengthen a long vowel before _th,_ as in _breathe,_ though when the vowel itself is a strong one, as _a_ in _bathe,_ the second vowel is not required, and _o_ in _both_ is so easily increased in sound that the two consonants alone are sufficient. It will be seen, therefore, that much depends on the quality of the vowel. _A_ and _o_ are the strongest vowels, _i_ the weakest (which accounts for sieve). After _s_ and _z_ we must also have a silent _e_ in addition to the silent vowel with which the sounded vowel is combined, as we may see in _cheese, increase, freeze,_ etc. The added vowel in combination with the long vowel is not always needed, however, as we may see in contrasting _raise_ and _rise_.
Not only vowels but consonants may serve to lengthen vowel sounds, as we see in _right, night, bright,_ and in _scold, roll,_ etc. Only _o_ is capable of being lengthened by two simple consonants such as we have in _scold_ and _roll_. In _calm_ and _ball,_ for instance, the _a_ has one of its extra values rather than its long sound. The _gh_ is of course a powerful combination. Once it was p.r.o.nounced; but it became so difficult that we have learned to give its value by dwelling a little on the vowel sound.
Another powerful means of lengthening a vowel is accent. When a vowel receives the full force of the accent by coming at the end of an accented syllable it is almost invariably made long. We see this in monosyllables such as _he, no,_ etc. It is often necessary to strengthen by an additional silent vowel, however, as in _tie, sue, view,_ etc., and _a_ has a peculiarity in that when it comes at the end of a syllable alone it has the sound of _ah,_ or _a_ Italian, rather than that of _a_ long, and we have _pa, ma,_ etc., and for the long sound _y_ is added, as in _say, day, ray. I_ has a great disinclination to appear at the end of a word, and so i{s}h usually changed to _y_ when such a position is necessary, or it takes silent _e_ as indicated above; while this service on the part of _y_ is reciprocated by _i_"s taking the place of _y_ inside a word, as may be ill.u.s.trated by _city_ and _cities_.
When a vowel gets the _full force_ of the accent in a word of two or more syllables it is bound to be long, as for instance the first _a_ in _ma"di a_. Even the stress necessary to keep the vowel from running into the next syllable will make it long, though the sound is somewhat obscured, some other syllable receiving the chief accent, as the first _a_ in _ma gi"cian_. In this last word _i_ seems to have the full force of the accent, yet it is not long; and we note the same in such words as _condi"tion,_ etc. The fact is, however, that _i_ being a weak vowel easily runs into the consonant sound of the next syllable, and if we note the sounds as we p.r.o.nounce _condition_ we shall see that the _sh_ sound represented by _ti_ blends with the _i_ and takes the force of the accent. We cannot separate the _ti_ or _ci_ from the following portion of the syllable, since if so separated they could not have their _sh_ value; but in p.r.o.nunciation this separation is made in part and the _sh_ sound serves both for the syllable that precedes and the syllable that follows. In a word like _di men"sion_ we find the _i_ of the first syllable long even without the accent, since the accent on _men_ attaches the _m_ so closely to it that it cannot in any way relieve the _i_. So we see that in an accented syllable the consonant before a short vowel, as well as the consonant following it, receives part of the stress. This is especially noticeable in the word _ma gi"cian_ as compared with _mag"ic_. In magic the syllable _ic_ is in itself so complete that the _g_ is kept with the _a_ and takes the force of the accent, leaving the _a_ short. In _magician_ the _g_ is drawn away from the _a_ to help out the short _i_ followed by an _sh_ sound, and the _a_ is lengthened even to altering the form of the simple word.
In the word _ma"gi an,_ again, we find _a_ long, the _g_ being needed to help out the _i_.
Since accent makes a vowel long if no consonant intervenes at the end of a syllable, and as a single consonant following such a vowel in a word of two syllables (though not in words of three or more) is likely to be drawn into the syllable following, a single consonant following a single short vowel must be doubled. If two or more consonants follow the vowel, as in _masking, standing, wilting,_ the vowel even in an accented syllable remains short. But in _pining_ with one _n_ following the _i_ in the accented syllable, we know that the vowel must be long, for if it were short the word would be written _pinning_.
Universal Rule: _Monosyllables_ in which, a single vowel is followed by a single consonant (except _v_ and _h_ never doubled) _double the final consonant_ when a single syllable beginning with a vowel is added, and _all words_ so ending double the final consonant on the addition of a syllable beginning with a vowel _if the syllable containing the single vowel_ followed by a single consonant _is to be accented_.
Thus we have _can--canning, run--running, fun--funny, flat--flattish_; and also _sin--sinned_ (for the _ed_ is counted a syllable though not p.r.o.nounced as such nowadays); _preferred,_ but _preference,_ since the accent is thrown back from the syllable containing the single vowel followed by a single consonant in the word _preference,_ though not in _preferred_; and of course the vowel is not doubled in _murmured, wondered, covered,_ etc.
If, however, the accented syllable is followed by two or more syllables, the tendency of accent is to shorten the vowel. Thus we have _grammat"ical,_ etc., in which the short vowel in the accented syllable is followed by a single consonant not doubled. The word _na"tion_ (with a long _a_) becomes _na"tional_ (short _a_) when the addition of a syllable throws the accent on to the antepenult. The vowel _u_ is never shortened in this way, however, and we have _lu"bricate,_ not _lub"ricate_. We also find such words as _no"tional_ (long _o_). While accented syllables which are followed by two or more syllables seldom if ever double the single consonant, in p.r.o.nunciation we often find the vowel long if the two syllables following contain short and weak vowels. Thus we have _pe"riod_ (long _e_), _ma"niac_ (long _a_), and _o"rient"al_ (long _o_).
In words of two syllables and other words in which the accent comes on the next to the last syllable, a short vowel in an accented syllable should logically always be followed by more than one consonant or a double consonant. We find the double consonant in such words as _summer, pretty, mammal,_ etc. Unfortunately, our second law, which requires all derived words to preserve the form of the original root, interferes with this principle very seriously in a large number of English words. The roots are often derived from languages in which this principle did not apply, or else these roots originally had very different sound values from those they have with us. So we have _body,_ with one _d,_ though we have _shoddy_ and _toddy_ regularly formed with two _d_"s, and we have _finish, exhibit,_ etc.; in _col"onnade_ the _n_ is doubled in a syllable that is not accented.
The chief exception to the general principle is the entire cla.s.s of words ending in _ic,_ such as _colic, cynic, civic, ant.i.thetic, peripatetic,_ etc. If the root is long, however, it will remain long after the addition of the termination _ic,_ as _music_ (from _muse_), _basic_ (from _base_), etc.
But in the case of words which we form ourselves, we will find practically no exceptions to the rule that a short vowel in a syllable _next_ to the last _must_ be followed by a _double consonant_ when accented, while a short vowel in a syllable _before_ the next to the last is _not_ followed by a double consonant when the syllable is accented.
2. Our second law tells us that the original form of a word or of its root must be preserved as far as possible. Most of the words referred to above in which single consonants are doubled or not doubled in violation of the general rule are derived from the Latin, usually through the French, and if we were familiar with those languages we should have a key to their correct spelling. But even without such thorough knowledge, we may learn a few of the methods of derivation in those languages, especially the Latin, as well as the simpler methods in use in the English.
Certain changes in the derived words are always made, as, for instance, the dropping of the silent _e_ when a syllable beginning with a vowel is added.
Rule. Silent _e_ at the end of a word is dropped whenever a syllable beginning with a vowel is added.
This rule is not quite universal, though nearly so. The silent _e_ is always retained when the vowel at the beginning of the added syllable would make a soft _c_ or _g_ hard, as in _serviceable, changeable,_ etc.
In _changing, chancing,_ etc., the _i_ of the added syllable is sufficient to make the _c_ or _g_ retain its soft sound. In such words as _cringe_ and _singe_ the silent _e_ is retained even before _i_ in order to avoid confusing the words so formed with other words in which the _ng_ has a nasal sound; thus we have _singeing_ to avoid confusion with _singing,_ though we have _singed_ in which the _e_ is dropped before _ed_ because the dropping of it causes no confusion. Formerly the silent _e_ was retained in _moveable_; but now we write _movable,_ according to the rule.
Of course when the added syllable begins with a consonant, the silent _e_ is not dropped, since dropping it would have the effect of shortening the preceding vowel by making it stand before two consonants.
A few monosyllables ending in two vowels, one of which is silent _e,_ are exceptions: _duly, truly_; also _wholly_.
Also final _y_ is changed to _i_ when a syllable is added, unless that added syllable begins with _i_ and two _i_"s would thus come together.
_I_ is a vowel never doubled. Th{u}?s we have _citified,_ but _citifying_.
We have already seen that final consonants may be doubled under certain circ.u.mstances when a syllable is added.
These are nearly all the changes in spelling that are possible when words are formed by adding syllables; but changes in p.r.o.nunciation and vowel values are often affected, as we have seen in _nation_ (_a_ long) and _national_ (_a_ short).
Prefixes. But words may be formed by prefixing syllables, or by combining two or more words into one. Many of these formations were effected in the Latin before the words were introduced into English; but we can study the principles governing them and gain a key to the spelling of many English words.
In English we unite a preposition with a verb by placing it after the verb and treating it as an adverb. Thus we have "breaking in,"
"running over," etc. In Latin the preposition in such cases was prefixed to the word; and there were particles used as prefixes which were never used as prepositions. We should become familiar with the princ.i.p.al Latin prefixes and always take them into account in the spelling of English words. The princ.i.p.al Latin prefixes are:
ab (abs)--from ad--to ante--before bi (bis)--twice circ.u.m (circu)--around con--with contra (counter)--against de--down, from dis--apart, not ex--out of, away from extra--beyond in--in, into, on; _also_ not (another word) inter--between?
non--not ob--in front of, in the way of per--through post--after pre--before pro--for, forth re--back or again retro--backward se--aside semi--half sub--under super--above, over trans--over, beyond ultra--beyond vice--instead of.
Of these prefixes, those ending in a single consonant are likely to change that consonant for euphony to the consonant beginning the word to which the prefix is attached. Thus _ad_ drops the _d_ in _ascend,_ becomes _ac_ in _accord, af_ in _affiliate, an_ in _annex, ap_ in _appropriate, at_ in _attend; con_ becomes _com_ in _commotion,_ also in _compunction_ and _compress, cor_ in _correspond, col_ in _collect, co_ in _co-equal_; _dis_ becomes _dif_ in _differ_; _ex_ becomes _e_ in _eject, ec_ in _eccentric, ef_ in _effect_; _in_ becomes _il_ in _illuminate, im_ in _import, ir_ in _irreconcilable; ob_ becomes _op_ in _oppress, oc_ in _occasion, of_ in _offend_; and _sub_ becomes _suc_ in _succeed, sup_ in _support, suf_ in _suffix, sug_ in _suggest, sus_ in _sustain_. The final consonant is changed to a consonant that can be easily p.r.o.nounced before the consonant with which the following syllable begins. Following the rule that the root must be changed as little as possible, it is always the prefix, not the root, which is compelled to yield to the demands of euphony.
A little reflection upon the derivation of words will thus often give us a key to the spelling. For instance, suppose we are in doubt whether _irredeemable_ has two _r_"s or only one: we now that _redeem_ is a root, and therefore the _ir_ must be a prefix, and the two _r_"s are accounted for,?indeed are necessary in order to prevent our losing sight of the derivation and meaning of the word. In the same way, we can never be in doubt as to the two _m_"s in _commotion, commencement,_ etc.
We have already noted the tendency of _y_ to become _i_ in the middle of a word. The exceptional cases are chiefly derivatives from the Greek, and a study of the Greek prefixes will often give us a hint in regard to the spelling of words containing _y_. These prefixes, given here in full for convenience, are:
a (an)--without, not amphi--both, around ana--up, back, through?
anti--against, opposite apo (ap)--from cata--down
dia--through en (em)--in epi (ep)--upon hyper--over, excessive hypo--under?
meta (met)--beyond, change syn (sy, syl, sym)--with, together
In Greek words also we will find _ph_ with the sound of _f_.
We know that _symmetrical, hypophosphite, metaphysics, emphasis,_ etc., are Greek because of the key we find in the prefix, and we are thus prepared for the _y_"s and _ph_"s. _F_ does not exist in the Greek alphabet (except as ph) and so we shall never find it in words derived from the Greek.
The English prefixes are not so often useful in determining peculiar spelling, but for completeness we give them here:
a--at, in, on (ahead) be--to make, by (benumb) en (em)--in, on, to make (encircle, empower) for--not, from (forbear) fore--before (forewarn) mis--wrong, wrongly (misstate) out--beyond (outbreak) over--above (overruling) to--the, this (to-night) un--not, opposite act (unable, undeceive) under--beneath (undermine) with--against, from (withstand)
CHAPTER III.
WORD-BUILDING--RULES AND APPLICATIONS.
There are a few rules and applications of the principles of word-formation which may be found fully treated in the chapter on "Orthography" at the beginning of the dictionary, but which we present here very briefly, together with a summary of principles already discussed.