34. Jan. 15, 1822, in Pintard, Jan. 15, 1822, in Pintard, Letters Letters, II, 121122.
35. Irving, Irving, History of New York History of New York (1812 ed.), vol. 1, 116 (Book 4, chs. 56); "with characteristic slowness...." appears only in the first edition (N.Y., 1809), vol. 1, 116 (Book 2, ch. 5); Irving deleted the pa.s.sage in the 1812 edition. For a somewhat later (and highly self-conscious) expression of this same Knickerbocker enterprise, see James K. Paulding, (1812 ed.), vol. 1, 116 (Book 4, chs. 56); "with characteristic slowness...." appears only in the first edition (N.Y., 1809), vol. 1, 116 (Book 2, ch. 5); Irving deleted the pa.s.sage in the 1812 edition. For a somewhat later (and highly self-conscious) expression of this same Knickerbocker enterprise, see James K. Paulding, The Book of Saint Nicholas, translated from the Original Dutch The Book of Saint Nicholas, translated from the Original Dutch (New York, 1836), a "biography" of the saint, dedicated to the St. Nicholas Society of New York, and with a preface dated "Nieuw Amsterdam, 1827." See also Peter H. Myers, (New York, 1836), a "biography" of the saint, dedicated to the St. Nicholas Society of New York, and with a preface dated "Nieuw Amsterdam, 1827." See also Peter H. Myers, The Young Patroon; or, Christmas in 1690. A Tale of New-York The Young Patroon; or, Christmas in 1690. A Tale of New-York (New York, 1849). (New York, 1849).
36. Sean Wilentz terms Moore a "level-headed Episcopalian conservative." (See Sean Wilentz terms Moore a "level-headed Episcopalian conservative." (See Chants Democratic Chants Democratic, 79.) The only book-length study of Moore, short and hagiographic, is Samuel W. Patterson, The Poet of Christmas Eve: A Life of Clement Clarke Moore, 17791863 The Poet of Christmas Eve: A Life of Clement Clarke Moore, 17791863 (New York: Morehouse-Gorham Co., 1956). For Moore"s ancestral background (and the Tory sympathies of his family), see 2229, 3136, 4851. His wife-they married in 1813-was a member of the Cordand family (6466). For information on Moore"s slaves, see 5, 48. The political tracts Moore published include (New York: Morehouse-Gorham Co., 1956). For Moore"s ancestral background (and the Tory sympathies of his family), see 2229, 3136, 4851. His wife-they married in 1813-was a member of the Cordand family (6466). For information on Moore"s slaves, see 5, 48. The political tracts Moore published include Observations upon Certain Pa.s.sages in Mr. Jefferson"s Notes on Virginia Observations upon Certain Pa.s.sages in Mr. Jefferson"s Notes on Virginia (New York, 1804), a critique of Jefferson"s irreligion; and A (New York, 1804), a critique of Jefferson"s irreligion; and A Sketch of Our Political Condition Sketch of Our Political Condition (New York, 1813), condemning the Jefferson and Madison administrations (and the War of 1812) for their destruction of rural life! A shorter biographical sketch is Arthur N. Hosking, "The Life of Clement Clarke Moore," appended to the 1934 reprint of a facsimile edition of Moore"s "A Visit from St. Nicholas" (New York, 1934). (New York, 1813), condemning the Jefferson and Madison administrations (and the War of 1812) for their destruction of rural life! A shorter biographical sketch is Arthur N. Hosking, "The Life of Clement Clarke Moore," appended to the 1934 reprint of a facsimile edition of Moore"s "A Visit from St. Nicholas" (New York, 1934).
37. Moore"s professorship initially paid a token $750, a figure that eventually increased to $2,000. See Patterson, Moore"s professorship initially paid a token $750, a figure that eventually increased to $2,000. See Patterson, The Poet of Christmas Eve, 7779 The Poet of Christmas Eve, 7779.
38. Hosking, "Life of Moore," 23. Hosking, "Life of Moore," 23.
39. April 8, 1830, in Pintard, April 8, 1830, in Pintard, Letters Letters, III, 137. For Moore"s wealth, see Charles Lock-wood, Manhattan Moves Uptown: An Ill.u.s.trated History Manhattan Moves Uptown: An Ill.u.s.trated History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976), 205; Patterson, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976), 205; Patterson, Poet of Christmas Eve Poet of Christmas Eve, 106110.
40. Isaac N. Phelps Stokes, Isaac N. Phelps Stokes, The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 14981909 The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 14981909 (6 vols., New York, 191528), vol. 5, 1602. Moore writes of eminent domain in (6 vols., New York, 191528), vol. 5, 1602. Moore writes of eminent domain in A Plain Statement, Addressed to the Proprietors of Real Estate in the City and County of New-York A Plain Statement, Addressed to the Proprietors of Real Estate in the City and County of New-York (New York, 1818), 1318. A few years later, the city made plans to fill in an area under the Hudson River, in the process moving the river away from Moore"s estate. (Phelps Stokes, (New York, 1818), 1318. A few years later, the city made plans to fill in an area under the Hudson River, in the process moving the river away from Moore"s estate. (Phelps Stokes, Iconography Iconography, vol. 5, 1603). By the 1830s some of that land was occupied by the Manhattan Gas-light Works, a company that was installing street lights in that area of the city, and digging a network of underground pipes in order to do so. (See New York As It Is New York As It Is [New York, 1837], 14.) [New York, 1837], 14.) 41. Longworth"s City Directory Longworth"s City Directory (New York, 1821), 315. (New York, 1821), 315.
42. Nov. 3, 1832, in Pintard, Nov. 3, 1832, in Pintard, Letters Letters, IV, 106. By the end of the 1820s, the area that had come to be known as Chelsea Square was home to a substantial population, much of it poor and/or immigrant. By the 1830s Moore was watching Irishmen on St. Patrick"s Day marching along the periphery of his property-down Twenty-third Street, then turning south on Eighth Avenue. See Patterson, Poet of Christmas Eve Poet of Christmas Eve, 9293. Like most of the men who owned great uptown estates, Clement Clarke Moore erected fences around his property.
43. Hosking, "Life of Moore," 2831. Hosking, "Life of Moore," 2831.
44. Moore, Moore, Plain Statement Plain Statement, 6, 12, 39, 62. Elizabeth Blackmar shrewdly suggests that Moore"s complaint was based on his understanding that New York"s urban development actually functioned as a public-works program to provide jobs for the poor and the unemployed-a program Moore opposed (Blackmar, Manhattan for Rent Manhattan for Rent, 162163). Cartmen, whom Moore singled out for criticism, had developed a reputation for especially rude and surly behavior by 1820, breaking speed limits and running down pedestrians-much like the modern taxi drivers who partly replaced them. See Graham Hodges, New York City Cartmen, 16671850 New York City Cartmen, 16671850 (New York: New York University Press, 1986), 116117, 127. Hodges indicates that many wealthy New Yorkers chose to move out of downtown New York after being awakened regularly by the sound of "hundreds of cartmen racing their vehicles at dawn" (p. 121). In the late 1820s Moore was actually planning to move out of Chelsea to a still-rural area of Manhattan several miles to the north; he changed his mind only when his wife died in 1830. In 1839 Moore purchased an estate up the Hudson River at Sing Sing, and in 1850 he rented a house in Newport, Rhode Island, where he spent his remaining summers. Patterson, (New York: New York University Press, 1986), 116117, 127. Hodges indicates that many wealthy New Yorkers chose to move out of downtown New York after being awakened regularly by the sound of "hundreds of cartmen racing their vehicles at dawn" (p. 121). In the late 1820s Moore was actually planning to move out of Chelsea to a still-rural area of Manhattan several miles to the north; he changed his mind only when his wife died in 1830. In 1839 Moore purchased an estate up the Hudson River at Sing Sing, and in 1850 he rented a house in Newport, Rhode Island, where he spent his remaining summers. Patterson, The Poet of Christmas Eve The Poet of Christmas Eve, 9394, 149150.
45. Irving, Irving, A History of New York A History of New York, vol. 1, 120 (Book 2, ch. 7); see also 454, 639, 655.
46. The Children"s Friend The Children"s Friend (New York, 1821). (New York, 1821).
47. Irving, Irving, A History of New York A History of New York (1812 ed.), vol. 1, 253 (Book 4, ch. 6: "ease, tranquillity;" vol. 1, 246 (Book 4, ch. 5: "meddlesome and fractious"); vol. 1, 254 (Book 4, ch. 6: "long pipes ... short pipes"). Irving introduced the story of the "pipe plot" only in the 1812 edition. (1812 ed.), vol. 1, 253 (Book 4, ch. 6: "ease, tranquillity;" vol. 1, 246 (Book 4, ch. 5: "meddlesome and fractious"); vol. 1, 254 (Book 4, ch. 6: "long pipes ... short pipes"). Irving introduced the story of the "pipe plot" only in the 1812 edition.
48. Lauren J. Cook, "Snow White Little Instruments of Comfort: Clay Pipes and Cla.s.s Consciousness at the Boott Mills Boarding Houses," a paper delivered at a meeting of the New England Historical a.s.sociation, Lowell, Ma.s.sachusetts, April 21, 1989. There was a practical reason for workers" use of short pipes: they made it possible to smoke while working. But what may have begun as a practical necessity became, by the nineteenth century, a political gesture. By the same token, smoking a long pipe became an Lauren J. Cook, "Snow White Little Instruments of Comfort: Clay Pipes and Cla.s.s Consciousness at the Boott Mills Boarding Houses," a paper delivered at a meeting of the New England Historical a.s.sociation, Lowell, Ma.s.sachusetts, April 21, 1989. There was a practical reason for workers" use of short pipes: they made it possible to smoke while working. But what may have begun as a practical necessity became, by the nineteenth century, a political gesture. By the same token, smoking a long pipe became an a.s.sertion a.s.sertion as well as a sign of genteel leisure (as, for example, the long pipes in Washington Irving"s "Rip Van Winkle"). as well as a sign of genteel leisure (as, for example, the long pipes in Washington Irving"s "Rip Van Winkle").
49. "Southwark Watchman"s Address for Christmas Day, Dec. 25, 1829" (Philadelphia, 1829), Broadside collection, American Antiquarian Society. Coincidentally, even the meter (of the odd lines, at least) is identical to that of "A Visit from St. Nicholas." "Southwark Watchman"s Address for Christmas Day, Dec. 25, 1829" (Philadelphia, 1829), Broadside collection, American Antiquarian Society. Coincidentally, even the meter (of the odd lines, at least) is identical to that of "A Visit from St. Nicholas."
50. Among some British Jews today, I have been told, the gesture still thrives, signifying Among some British Jews today, I have been told, the gesture still thrives, signifying stumm! stumm!, or "hush."
51. New York Sun New York Sun, Sept. 21, 1897.
52. Patterson, Patterson, Poet of Christmas Eve Poet of Christmas Eve, 99101.
53. Blackmar, Blackmar, Manhattan for Rent Manhattan for Rent, 195196. See also Lockwood, Manhattan Moves Uptown Manhattan Moves Uptown, 205. John Pintard made the same point in 1832; see letter of Nov. 3, 1832, in Pintard, Letters Letters, IV, 106.
54. Blackmar, Blackmar, Manhattan for Rent Manhattan for Rent, pa.s.sim.
Chapter 3.
1. New-York American New-York American [for the country], Jan. 4, 1822. [for the country], Jan. 4, 1822.
2. New-York Weekly Commercial Advertiser New-York Weekly Commercial Advertiser, Jan. 3, 1823. Stone added that such a change would also provide the "young ladies" who hosted the visits with "an opportunity for a contest of skill in making coffee."
3. "Sainte Claus," in "Sainte Claus," in New-York Evening Post New-York Evening Post, Dec. 26, 1820 (this poem was reprinted from the Northern Whig) Northern Whig).
4. "Ode to Saint Claas, Written on a New Year"s Eve," "Ode to Saint Claas, Written on a New Year"s Eve," New York Advertiser New York Advertiser, Jan. 4, 1828 and New-York American New-York American, Jan. 4, 1828.
5. For another example of Santa as Lord of Misrule, see Francis H. Davidge, "Christmas Is Coming," in T. S. Arthur, ed., For another example of Santa as Lord of Misrule, see Francis H. Davidge, "Christmas Is Coming," in T. S. Arthur, ed., The Brilliant The Brilliant (New York, 1850), 2226. This sketch was apparently written by a Southerner, and it was in the South that Santa Claus continued for decades to be described as a "trickster." See, for example, Joel Chandler Harris, "Something About "Sandy Claus"": ch. 7, (New York, 1850), 2226. This sketch was apparently written by a Southerner, and it was in the South that Santa Claus continued for decades to be described as a "trickster." See, for example, Joel Chandler Harris, "Something About "Sandy Claus"": ch. 7, On the Plantation: A Story of a Georgia Boy"s Adventures During the War On the Plantation: A Story of a Georgia Boy"s Adventures During the War (New York, 1892), 104121, in which a pair of slaves describe Santa Claus as a kind of Brer Rabbit figure. (New York, 1892), 104121, in which a pair of slaves describe Santa Claus as a kind of Brer Rabbit figure.
6. New-York Advertiser New-York Advertiser, Jan. 4, 1828. This was the same callithumpian parade described in Chapter 2 Chapter 2 (pp. 5455). (pp. 5455).
7. New-York American New-York American, Dec. 28, 1827.
8. Ibid., Dec. 30, 1828. A year later the same newspaper came out in favor of excluding alcohol from the New Year"s visitation ritual (ibid., see letter appearing Jan. 1, 1830). Ibid., Dec. 30, 1828. A year later the same newspaper came out in favor of excluding alcohol from the New Year"s visitation ritual (ibid., see letter appearing Jan. 1, 1830).
9. Eliza C. Folien, "Life of Charles Folien," Eliza C. Folien, "Life of Charles Folien," The Works of Charles Folien The Works of Charles Folien (5 vols., Boston, 1842), I, 562. (5 vols., Boston, 1842), I, 562.
10. New York Morning Herald New York Morning Herald, Dec. 25, 1839. The theater at which "Santiclaus" appeared was the Broadway Circus, perhaps the only New York theater that was still attracting a "mixed"-cla.s.s audience at this time. See also New York Tattler New York Tattler, Dec. 27, 1839. These items were brought to my attention by Dale c.o.c.krell.
11. New York Daily Herald New York Daily Herald, Dec. 23, 1839.
12. Dec. 26, 1848, in Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., Dec. 26, 1848, in Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., Diary of George Templeton Strong Diary of George Templeton Strong (4 vols., New York: Macmillan, 1952), 1, 338339. (4 vols., New York: Macmillan, 1952), 1, 338339.
13. New-York Tribune New-York Tribune, Dec. 23, 1850. The paper went on to suggest that these gangs had the tacit support of politicians (presumably from Tammany Hall).
14. New-York Tribune New-York Tribune, Jan. 3, 1852. For a survey of riots in nineteenth-century New York, see Luc Sante, Low Life: Lures and Snares of New York Low Life: Lures and Snares of New York (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1991), 339356, a chapter bearing the apt t.i.tle "Carnival." (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1991), 339356, a chapter bearing the apt t.i.tle "Carnival."
15. New-York Tribune New-York Tribune, Jan. 3, 1852.
16. See also the See also the New-York American New-York American for Dec. 26 and 30, 1840, juxtaposing riot reports (in one column) with an upbeat editorial (in another) about Christmas shopping and "the merry days [of] childhood and youth." for Dec. 26 and 30, 1840, juxtaposing riot reports (in one column) with an upbeat editorial (in another) about Christmas shopping and "the merry days [of] childhood and youth."
17. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "Christmas at Ratzeburg," in Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "Christmas at Ratzeburg," in The Friend The Friend (Burlington, Vermont, 1831), 322. Coleridge continues: "About seven or eight years old the children are let into the secret, and it is curious how faithfully they keep it!" Readers who studied the piano as children may recall "Knecht Ruprecht" as the t.i.tle of a mock-scary piece from Robert Schumann"s "Alb.u.m for the Young." In Alsace, a similar figure was named Hanstrap. (Burlington, Vermont, 1831), 322. Coleridge continues: "About seven or eight years old the children are let into the secret, and it is curious how faithfully they keep it!" Readers who studied the piano as children may recall "Knecht Ruprecht" as the t.i.tle of a mock-scary piece from Robert Schumann"s "Alb.u.m for the Young." In Alsace, a similar figure was named Hanstrap.
18. Pennsylvania Gazette Pennsylvania Gazette, Dec. 29, 1827; quoted in Alfred Shoemaker, Christmas in Pennsylvania: A Folk-Cultural Study Christmas in Pennsylvania: A Folk-Cultural Study (Kutztown: Penn. Folklore Society, 1959), 74. (Kutztown: Penn. Folklore Society, 1959), 74.
19. Ibid., 7475. Ibid., 7475.
20. See, for example, P. E. Gibbons, "The Pennsylvania Dutch," See, for example, P. E. Gibbons, "The Pennsylvania Dutch," Atlantic Monthly Atlantic Monthly, Oct. 1869, 484; quoted ibid., 76.
21. Diary of James L. Morris (from Montgomery, Penn.); quoted ibid., 74. Diary of James L. Morris (from Montgomery, Penn.); quoted ibid., 74.
22. Pottstown Lafayette Aurora Pottstown Lafayette Aurora, Dec. 21, 1826; quoted ibid., 7374.
23. Morris diary entry, Dec. 24, 1844, quoted ibid., 74; Morris diary entry, Dec. 24, 1844, quoted ibid., 74; Norristown Herald and Free Press Norristown Herald and Free Press, Dec. 31, 1851; Lancaster Daily Evening Express Lancaster Daily Evening Express, Dec. 26, 1873; Carlisle Herald Carlisle Herald, Jan. 2, 1873; all quoted Shoemaker, Christmas in Pennsylvania Christmas in Pennsylvania, 77.
24. Reading Berks and Schuylkill Journal Reading Berks and Schuylkill Journal, Dec. 27, 1851; Norristown Olive Branch Norristown Olive Branch, Dec. 31, 1853; Easton Daily Express Easton Daily Express, Dec. 27, 1858 (all quoted Shoemaker, Christmas in Pennsylvania Christmas in Pennsylvania, 76).
25. Pottstown Ledger Pottstown Ledger, Dec. 26, 1873; quoted ibid., 77.
26. Susan G. Davis, ""Making Night Hideous": Christmas Revelry and Public Order in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia," Susan G. Davis, ""Making Night Hideous": Christmas Revelry and Public Order in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia," American Quarterly American Quarterly 34 (1982), 185199 (quotation from 190191). 34 (1982), 185199 (quotation from 190191).
27. Philadelphia Daily Chronicle Philadelphia Daily Chronicle, Dec. 26, 1833; quoted Shoemaker, Christmas in Pennsylvania Christmas in Pennsylvania, 86; partly quoted in Susan G. Davis, Parades and Power: Street Theater in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia Parades and Power: Street Theater in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 81. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1986), 81.
28. Philadelphia Public Ledger Philadelphia Public Ledger, Dec. 27, 1839.
29. Davis, ""Making Night Hideous,"" 191. Davis, ""Making Night Hideous,"" 191.
30. Philadelphia Public Ledger Philadelphia Public Ledger, Dec. 25, 1839.
31. Ibid., Dec. 27, 1848. On Dec. 30, 1856, Philadelphia patrician Sidney Fisher noted in his diary that he had "[h]ad trouble with our servants-cook and waiter got drunk this afternoon & I was obliged to have the police to take them away." Nicholas B. Wainwright, Ibid., Dec. 27, 1848. On Dec. 30, 1856, Philadelphia patrician Sidney Fisher noted in his diary that he had "[h]ad trouble with our servants-cook and waiter got drunk this afternoon & I was obliged to have the police to take them away." Nicholas B. Wainwright, A Philadelphia Perspective: The Diary of Sidney George Fisher Covering the Years 18341871 A Philadelphia Perspective: The Diary of Sidney George Fisher Covering the Years 18341871 (Philadelphia: Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1967), 264. (Philadelphia: Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1967), 264.
32. Philadelphia Public Ledger Philadelphia Public Ledger, Dec. 25, 1844. Or take Sidney Fisher: On Christmas Day, 1840, that patrician "ate pretty well & drank claret, champagne &, Madeira [at dinner], again at supper drank Burgundy, Madeira & whiskey punch, besides 4 cigars at home." Diary entry, Dec. 26, 1840, in Wainwright, A Philadelphia Perspective A Philadelphia Perspective, 108.
33. For the open shops, see, for example, the 1841 column of Christmas Day amus.e.m.e.nts: "[W]e briefly note below where are kept and may be obtained the good things prepared for the times, the large use of which is part of the performances of the day." Although "businesses" were reported closed, that term apparently referred to large-scale financial and manufacturing enterprises. For the open shops, see, for example, the 1841 column of Christmas Day amus.e.m.e.nts: "[W]e briefly note below where are kept and may be obtained the good things prepared for the times, the large use of which is part of the performances of the day." Although "businesses" were reported closed, that term apparently referred to large-scale financial and manufacturing enterprises.
34. Nile"s National Register Nile"s National Register, Jan. 1, 1842, 288 (this item was brought to my attention by Carol Sherif). See also Philadelphia Public Ledger Philadelphia Public Ledger, Dec. 27, 1843, and Dec. 25 and 27, 1844. These promenades may have been a source of Edgar Allan Poe"s story "The Man of the Crowd," a dark tale about a man who gets swept up in a vast crowd while promenading through the streets of a large city. The story (set in London, which Poe had never seen) was published in 1840, after the first Christmas Poe spent in Philadelphia.
35. Philadelphia Public Ledger Philadelphia Public Ledger, Dec. 27, 1841 ("struggling and jostling"); Dec. 26, 1842 ("the whole city").
36. Ibid., Dec. 27, 1843 ("more drunken men and boys"); Dec. 25 and 27, 1844. Philadelphia was not the only city in which regular public rituals were burlesqued. In New York, the military companies that marched out of the city each Christmas Day on the way to target-shooting were burlesqued by similar bands of "fantasticals." Ibid., Dec. 27, 1843 ("more drunken men and boys"); Dec. 25 and 27, 1844. Philadelphia was not the only city in which regular public rituals were burlesqued. In New York, the military companies that marched out of the city each Christmas Day on the way to target-shooting were burlesqued by similar bands of "fantasticals."
37. Philadelphia Public Ledger Philadelphia Public Ledger, Dec. 27, 1845; Dec. 25, 1846.
38. In 1801 In 1801 Poulson"s American Daily Advertiser Poulson"s American Daily Advertiser carried a watchman"s address asking for money (Dec. 25, 1801). But in 1802 the same newspaper published a warning, under the heading "Christmas Reflections," urging religious piety instead of revelry and excess-at least on Christmas Day itself: "Pause- carried a watchman"s address asking for money (Dec. 25, 1801). But in 1802 the same newspaper published a warning, under the heading "Christmas Reflections," urging religious piety instead of revelry and excess-at least on Christmas Day itself: "Pause-ye giddy and ye gay.... Forego, for giddy and ye gay.... Forego, for one one day at least, the resplendent and fascinating charms of dissipation." (Ibid., Dec. 25, 1802.) day at least, the resplendent and fascinating charms of dissipation." (Ibid., Dec. 25, 1802.) 39. The four almanacs: "Citizens & Farmers" Almanack for ... 1825" (Philadelphia, [1824]); "Grigg"s Almanack, for ... 1825" (Philadelphia, [1824]); "New Brunswick Almanack, for 1825" (Philadelphia, [1824]); and "The United States National Almanac" (Philadelphia, 1825). The newspapers: The four almanacs: "Citizens & Farmers" Almanack for ... 1825" (Philadelphia, [1824]); "Grigg"s Almanack, for ... 1825" (Philadelphia, [1824]); "New Brunswick Almanack, for 1825" (Philadelphia, [1824]); and "The United States National Almanac" (Philadelphia, 1825). The newspapers: Sat.u.r.day Evening Post Sat.u.r.day Evening Post, Dec. 23, 1826; National Gazette National Gazette, Dec. 24, 1827 (Moore poem); Poulson"s Poulson"s, Dec. 26, 1827 (Bracebridge Hall). The "Bracebridge Hall" extract was a pa.s.sage defining Christmas as "the season for gathering together of family connections...."
40. Poulson"s Poulson"s, Dec. 24, 1828; National Gazette National Gazette, Dec. 26, 1828; Poulson"s Poulson"s, Dec. 26, 1829 (Santa Claus ritual)); National Gazette National Gazette, Dec. 24, 1830.
41. Nathaniel Whittemore (Boston, 1719), lines opposite Dec. 1821; Henry Dwight Sedgwick to Theodore Sedgwick, ma.n.u.script letter, Dec. 24, 1805, in Sedgwick Family Papers V (Ma.s.sachusetts Historical Society), Box 2.13; Nathaniel Whittemore (Boston, 1719), lines opposite Dec. 1821; Henry Dwight Sedgwick to Theodore Sedgwick, ma.n.u.script letter, Dec. 24, 1805, in Sedgwick Family Papers V (Ma.s.sachusetts Historical Society), Box 2.13; Boston Daily Advertiser Boston Daily Advertiser, Dec. 22, 1818; John Pintard to his daughter, Dec. 16, 1827, in Letters from John Pintard Letters from John Pintard, vol. 2, 382; New-York Tribune New-York Tribune, Jan. 2, 1854. For comparison, here is the text of a wa.s.sail sung by young people in England: "We are not daily beggars / That beg from door to door, / But we are neighbors" children, / Whom you have seen before.... / We have got a little purse / Made of stretching leather skin, / We want a little of your money / To line it well within." (Quoted Ashton, Right Merrie Christma.s.se Right Merrie Christma.s.se, 111112.) 42. See, for instance, John R. Gillis, See, for instance, John R. Gillis, Youth and History: Tradition and Change in European Age Relations, 1770-Present Youth and History: Tradition and Change in European Age Relations, 1770-Present (New York: Academic Press, 1974); for an American version, see John Demos, (New York: Academic Press, 1974); for an American version, see John Demos, A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970). Phillipe Aries, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970). Phillipe Aries, Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life Family Life (New York: Knopf, 1962), shows brilliantly how this began to change in the seventeenth century among the European aristocracy and n.o.bility. (New York: Knopf, 1962), shows brilliantly how this began to change in the seventeenth century among the European aristocracy and n.o.bility.
43. The ritual had reached America by the middle of the eighteenth century. A little broadside printed in 1765 or 1766 (probably in Boston) contains the following short verse, written by a blacksmiths apprentice: "This is unto all The ritual had reached America by the middle of the eighteenth century. A little broadside printed in 1765 or 1766 (probably in Boston) contains the following short verse, written by a blacksmiths apprentice: "This is unto all GENTLEMEN GENTLEMEN who shoes [sic]] here, / I wish you a merry Christmas, a happy New Year: / For shoeing your Horses, and tr.i.m.m.i.n.g their Locks, / Please to remember my New-Years Box." (This is catalogued as Bristol "B2818; S-M41768; Ford #137. Ford says it was "probably" printed in New England because it was found together with other New England material.) For the history of Christmas boxes, see Ashton, who shoes [sic]] here, / I wish you a merry Christmas, a happy New Year: / For shoeing your Horses, and tr.i.m.m.i.n.g their Locks, / Please to remember my New-Years Box." (This is catalogued as Bristol "B2818; S-M41768; Ford #137. Ford says it was "probably" printed in New England because it was found together with other New England material.) For the history of Christmas boxes, see Ashton, A Right Merrie Christma.s.se A Right Merrie Christma.s.se, 202204 (Samuel Pepys and Jonathan Swift); see also J. A. R. Pimlott, The Englishman"s Christmas: A Social History The Englishman"s Christmas: A Social History (Suss.e.x, England: Harvester Press, 1978), 7273. (Suss.e.x, England: Harvester Press, 1978), 7273.
44. Nurse Trueloves Christmas Box Nurse Trueloves Christmas Box (Worcester, Ma.s.s., 1786 [and several times thereafter]); Emily E. F. Skeel, (Worcester, Ma.s.s., 1786 [and several times thereafter]); Emily E. F. Skeel, Mason Locke Weems, His Work and Ways Mason Locke Weems, His Work and Ways (3 vols., New York, 1929), III, 29. An advertis.e.m.e.nt headed "Christmas Box" appeared in the (3 vols., New York, 1929), III, 29. An advertis.e.m.e.nt headed "Christmas Box" appeared in the New-York Evening Post New-York Evening Post, Dec. 24, 1802.
45. Both volumes were originally printed in Boston in 1747. The former was reprinted six more times by 1804; a last edition appeared in 1824. Both volumes were originally printed in Boston in 1747. The former was reprinted six more times by 1804; a last edition appeared in 1824.
46. A Present to Children A Present to Children (New London, 1783); (New London, 1783); Present for Misses Present for Misses (Worcester: I. Thomas, 1794); (Worcester: I. Thomas, 1794); A Present for a Little Boy A Present for a Little Boy (Philadelphia, 1802); (Philadelphia, 1802); A Present for a Little Girl A Present for a Little Girl (Philadelphia, 1804). (Philadelphia, 1804).
47. "How am I pleas"d with painted toys? / I feed the foolish fire: / Trifles and fashions cover my eyes / And cheat my warm desire. / On jointed babes [i.e., dolls] I fix my hope. / In my fond arms carest; / I dress the mimic-puppets up, / And hug them to my breast." "How am I pleas"d with painted toys? / I feed the foolish fire: / Trifles and fashions cover my eyes / And cheat my warm desire. / On jointed babes [i.e., dolls] I fix my hope. / In my fond arms carest; / I dress the mimic-puppets up, / And hug them to my breast." (A Present to Children (A Present to Children [New London, Conn., 1783], 9.) [New London, Conn., 1783], 9.) 48. Boston Daily Advertiser Boston Daily Advertiser, Dec. 22, 1818. This letter is also discussed in Chapter 1 Chapter 1.
49. Rex Cathcart, "Festive Capers? Barring-Out the Schoolmaster," Rex Cathcart, "Festive Capers? Barring-Out the Schoolmaster," History Today History Today 38 (Dec. 1988), 4953. Cathcart suggests that barring-out may have begun as a subst.i.tute for the earlier inversion ritual known as the "Boy-Bishop," which was suppressed at about the same time. See also Keith Thomas, 38 (Dec. 1988), 4953. Cathcart suggests that barring-out may have begun as a subst.i.tute for the earlier inversion ritual known as the "Boy-Bishop," which was suppressed at about the same time. See also Keith Thomas, Rule and Misrule in the Schools of Early Modern England Rule and Misrule in the Schools of Early Modern England (Reading, England: University of Reading Press, 1976). For barring-out in England, see Maria Edgeworth, "The Barring Out" (Philadelphia, 1804); Brand, (Reading, England: University of Reading Press, 1976). For barring-out in England, see Maria Edgeworth, "The Barring Out" (Philadelphia, 1804); Brand, Popular English Antiquities Popular English Antiquities, I, 441434; and Ona and Peter Opie, The Lore and Language of Children The Lore and Language of Children (Oxford, England, 1959). (Oxford, England, 1959).
50. "The Further Affidavit of James Blair ...," in William S. Perry, ed., "The Further Affidavit of James Blair ...," in William S. Perry, ed., Historical Collections Relating to the American Colonial Church Historical Collections Relating to the American Colonial Church (2 vols., Hartford, 1870), 1, 137138. Virginia was also the site of an apparently more peaceful barring-out much later in the same century. A Northern visitor noted in his diary on Dec. 18, 1773, that "Mr Goodlet was barr"d out of his School last Monday by his Scholars, for the Christmas Holidays, which are to continue til twelfth-day...." (Hunter d.i.c.kinson Farish, ed., (2 vols., Hartford, 1870), 1, 137138. Virginia was also the site of an apparently more peaceful barring-out much later in the same century. A Northern visitor noted in his diary on Dec. 18, 1773, that "Mr Goodlet was barr"d out of his School last Monday by his Scholars, for the Christmas Holidays, which are to continue til twelfth-day...." (Hunter d.i.c.kinson Farish, ed., The Journal and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian The Journal and Letters of Philip Vickers Fithian [Williamsburg, Va., 1943], entry for Dec. 18, 1773, 34.) [Williamsburg, Va., 1943], entry for Dec. 18, 1773, 34.) 51. Philadelphia Democratic Press Philadelphia Democratic Press, Dec. 18, 1810; quoted Shoemaker, Christmas in Pennsylvania Christmas in Pennsylvania, 24. Another Pennsylvanian, writing later in the century, recalled the custom from his childhood in the 1850s: "The windows were nailed fast, one and all; the benches were dragged from all parts of the room and piled against the door,-a long row extending to the stove, as a prop.... For one brief hour the scholars were master,-the tables turned, as it were, and riot ran high and wild." (Charles H. Miller, Lykens Twenty Years Ago Lykens Twenty Years Ago (Lykens, Pa., 1876), 13; quoted ibid., 27.) (Lykens, Pa., 1876), 13; quoted ibid., 27.) 52. Horace Greeley, Horace Greeley, Recollections of a Busy Life Recollections of a Busy Life (New York, 1868), 4344. For an Indiana example from the 1830s, reported in vivid detail, see (New York, 1868), 4344. For an Indiana example from the 1830s, reported in vivid detail, see A Home in the Woods: Oliver Johnson"s Reminiscences of Early Marion County, as Related by Howard Johnson A Home in the Woods: Oliver Johnson"s Reminiscences of Early Marion County, as Related by Howard Johnson (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, [1951]), 5664. (This item was brought to my attention by Burton Bledstein.) (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, [1951]), 5664. (This item was brought to my attention by Burton Bledstein.) 53. For background on school culture in New England, see Robert A. Gross, For background on school culture in New England, see Robert A. Gross, An Age of Revolution An Age of Revolution (forthcoming, Hill & w.a.n.g), ch. 3. Barring-out presumably died off later in the century, as Christmas vacations became an official part of the school calendar rather than something negotiated ad hoc by the schoolboys themselves (and as the teaching profession itself became professionalized-and feminized). Even in colleges, a similar custom may have been practiced, although by the nineteenth century it more generally took the form of students simply leaving the campus at Christmastime, sometimes with the encouragement of the faculty. (See (forthcoming, Hill & w.a.n.g), ch. 3. Barring-out presumably died off later in the century, as Christmas vacations became an official part of the school calendar rather than something negotiated ad hoc by the schoolboys themselves (and as the teaching profession itself became professionalized-and feminized). Even in colleges, a similar custom may have been practiced, although by the nineteenth century it more generally took the form of students simply leaving the campus at Christmastime, sometimes with the encouragement of the faculty. (See Diary of George Templeton Strong Diary of George Templeton Strong, Dec. 2223, 1835, 1, 89.) But students at Yale were engaging in an annual Christmas Eve "Callithumpian anniversary" during the 1830s and 1840s: Late at night, "painted and masked, wearing all sorts of hideous and fantastic dresses; some having drums, some tin kettles, some horns," they would march through New Haven, "carrying devastation and ruin wherever they go, levelling fences, breaking windows, destroying the unfortunate barrels of whiskey, which may happen to be exposed...." (An extended account of this ritual appeared in the New York Herald New York Herald, Dec. 30, 1837.) After the 1847 callithumpian parade, one Yale student was actually indicted for attempted murder (Hampshire Gazette (Hampshire Gazette [Northampton, Ma.s.s.], Dec. 28, 1847, and Feb. 8, 1848). [Northampton, Ma.s.s.], Dec. 28, 1847, and Feb. 8, 1848).
54. See Seba Smith, "Yankee Christmas," in " See Seba Smith, "Yankee Christmas," in "Way Down East; or, Portraitures of Yankee Life (New York, 1854), 2952; previously printed in the (New York, 1854), 2952; previously printed in the New York [Weekly] Herald New York [Weekly] Herald, Dec. 24, 1842. See also "Doesticks" Description of the Christmas Party at His Friend Medary"s," in Frank Leslie"s Ill.u.s.trated Newspaper Frank Leslie"s Ill.u.s.trated Newspaper, Jan. 2, 1858, 75.
55. Eliza Leslie, "Snow-Balling; or, The Christmas Dollar," in Eliza Leslie, "Snow-Balling; or, The Christmas Dollar," in The Violet The Violet (Philadelphia, 1839 [c. 1838]), 3652. (Philadelphia, 1839 [c. 1838]), 3652.
56. New York American New York American, Dec. 26, 1840. An exemplary study of Philadelphia"s "mechanics" during these years is Bruce Laurie, Working People of Philadelphia, 18001850 Working People of Philadelphia, 18001850 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980). (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980).
57. "Christmas Eve," in "Christmas Eve," in Christmas Blossoms, and New Year"s Wreath for 1850 Christmas Blossoms, and New Year"s Wreath for 1850 (Philadelphia, 1850), 3839. (Philadelphia, 1850), 3839.
58. Christmas Holidays; or, A Visit at Home Christmas Holidays; or, A Visit at Home (Philadelphia [American Sunday School Union], [1827]), 1920. (Philadelphia [American Sunday School Union], [1827]), 1920.
59. Lydia Maria Child, Lydia Maria Child, The Girl"s Own Book The Girl"s Own Book (Boston, 1833), iv. (Boston, 1833), iv.
60. This is not the only such example. The American Antiquarian Society"s copy of Robin Carver, This is not the only such example. The American Antiquarian Society"s copy of Robin Carver, The Book of Sports The Book of Sports (Boston, 1834) is inscribed on its flyleaf with the date "Jan. 1st, 1835." (Boston, 1834) is inscribed on its flyleaf with the date "Jan. 1st, 1835."
61. New-York Daily Advertiser New-York Daily Advertiser, Dec. 26. 1817; New-York Daily Advertiser New-York Daily Advertiser, Dec. 24, 1824). See also an ad in the New England Palladium New England Palladium, 182223, for "instructive games on cloth, with te-totems." A te-totum te-totum was a top. was a top.
62. Cincinnati Daily Gazette Cincinnati Daily Gazette, Dec. 23, 1844.
63. Ibid., Dec. 23, 1845. Ibid., Dec. 23, 1845.
64. Liberty Hall and Cincinnati Gazette Liberty Hall and Cincinnati Gazette, Dec. 24, 1821; New England Galaxy New England Galaxy, Dec. 26, 1823.
65. Quotations from Claire McGlinchee, Quotations from Claire McGlinchee, The First Decade of the Boston Museum The First Decade of the Boston Museum (Boston: Bruce Humphries, Inc., 1940), 132. See also A. E. Wilson, (Boston: Bruce Humphries, Inc., 1940), 132. See also A. E. Wilson, Christmas Pantomime, the Story of an English Inst.i.tution Christmas Pantomime, the Story of an English Inst.i.tution (London, 1934; reprinted as (London, 1934; reprinted as King Panto; the Story of Pantomime King Panto; the Story of Pantomime [New York: E. P. Dutton, 1935]); R.J. Broadbent, [New York: E. P. Dutton, 1935]); R.J. Broadbent, A History of Pantomime A History of Pantomime (London, 1901). McGlinchee writes that "[t]his type of entertainment was superseded by the Christmas show, a queer medley of burlesque, musical comedy, fairy play, and revue. The term "pantomime" was kept, even though dialogue had been introduced." (London, 1901). McGlinchee writes that "[t]his type of entertainment was superseded by the Christmas show, a queer medley of burlesque, musical comedy, fairy play, and revue. The term "pantomime" was kept, even though dialogue had been introduced."
66. For a good description of theater as a "male club" (and the mid-nineteenth-century effort to transform it into "respectable" family fare), see Richard Butsch, "Bowery B"hoys and Matinee Ladies: The Re-Gendering of Nineteenth-Century American Theater Audiences," For a good description of theater as a "male club" (and the mid-nineteenth-century effort to transform it into "respectable" family fare), see Richard Butsch, "Bowery B"hoys and Matinee Ladies: The Re-Gendering of Nineteenth-Century American Theater Audiences," American Quarterly American Quarterly 46 (1994), 374405. 46 (1994), 374405.
67. New York Weekly Herald New York Weekly Herald, Dec. 30, 1837; New York [Daily] Herald New York [Daily] Herald, Dec. 26, 1844.
68. Ibid. The tickets had probably been purchased for the newsboys by their employers, as a Christmas present. See Ibid. The tickets had probably been purchased for the newsboys by their employers, as a Christmas present. See Brother Jonathan Brother Jonathan, Holiday Extras dated Jan. 1, 1843, and Dec. 25-Jan. 1, 1844 (which reported that they had gone to the Chatham Theater).
69. The best account of the newsboys" love of theater is in an 1852 novel by Elizabeth Oakes Smith, The best account of the newsboys" love of theater is in an 1852 novel by Elizabeth Oakes Smith, The Newsboy The Newsboy (New York, 1854), 2533, from which I have taken some of my description. See also (New York, 1854), 2533, from which I have taken some of my description. See also Tom Brice, the News-boy Tom Brice, the News-boy (New York, 1862), 45; and Charles Loring Brace, (New York, 1862), 45; and Charles Loring Brace, The Dangerous Cla.s.ses of New York, and Twenty Years" Work Among Them The Dangerous Cla.s.ses of New York, and Twenty Years" Work Among Them (New York, 1872), 345346. (New York, 1872), 345346.
70. Philadelphia Public Ledger Philadelphia Public Ledger, Dec. 25, 1844.
71. For this quotation and those in the following paragraph, see ibid., Dec. 27, 1843. For this quotation and those in the following paragraph, see ibid., Dec. 27, 1843.
72. Ibid., Dec. 25, 1845. Ibid., Dec. 25, 1845.
73. Ibid., Dec. 24, 1845. Ibid., Dec. 24, 1845.
74. Kriss Kringle"s Book Kriss Kringle"s Book (Philadelphia, 1845), 6. The t.i.tle of the book is-deliberately-malleable. The cloth cover reads "Kriss Kringle"s Book," and that t.i.tle is repeated at the very end of the preface. But the t.i.tle page itself reads "St. Nicholas"s Book," and that is the way the book is referred to at (Philadelphia, 1845), 6. The t.i.tle of the book is-deliberately-malleable. The cloth cover reads "Kriss Kringle"s Book," and that t.i.tle is repeated at the very end of the preface. But the t.i.tle page itself reads "St. Nicholas"s Book," and that is the way the book is referred to at another another point in the preface. When the book was reprinted in 1846 the t.i.tle page read "The Christmas Book," while a third printing, in 1852, read "Kriss Kringle"s Book." point in the preface. When the book was reprinted in 1846 the t.i.tle page read "The Christmas Book," while a third printing, in 1852, read "Kriss Kringle"s Book."
75. Kriss Kringle"s Christmas Tree: A Holliday Kriss Kringle"s Christmas Tree: A Holliday [sic] [sic] Present for Boys and Girls Present for Boys and Girls (Philadelphia, 1845), 77 ("sword or drum"); (Philadelphia, 1845), 77 ("sword or drum"); Kriss Kringle"s Raree Show, for Good Boys and Girls Kriss Kringle"s Raree Show, for Good Boys and Girls (Philadelphia, 1845). (Philadelphia, 1845).
76. Oxford English Dictionary Oxford English Dictionary (definition of (definition of raree show) raree show).
77. Kriss Kringle"s Raree Show Kriss Kringle"s Raree Show, 5.
78. The socially disruptive, subversive potential of books (especially fiction and romance) was well recognized in the early nineteenth century (critics employed virtually all the same arguments that are used today against children"s watching television). Novels were even written to warn their readers about the dangers of reading other novels! In one novella, published in 1824 and set during the Christmas vacation from school, the parents keep their collection of books in a locked bookcase, and a series of mishaps is set off when the mother is obliged to entrust the key to her oldest daughter. ([Lucy Lyttleton Cameron,] The socially disruptive, subversive potential of books (especially fiction and romance) was well recognized in the early nineteenth century (critics employed virtually all the same arguments that are used today against children"s watching television). Novels were even written to warn their readers about the dangers of reading other novels! In one novella, published in 1824 and set during the Christmas vacation from school, the parents keep their collection of books in a locked bookcase, and a series of mishaps is set off when the mother is obliged to entrust the key to her oldest daughter. ([Lucy Lyttleton Cameron,] The Sister"s Friend; or, Christmas Holidays Spent at Home The Sister"s Friend; or, Christmas Holidays Spent at Home [Boston, 1824]). [Boston, 1824]).
Chapter 4.