PART 6
War and Head-Hunting
En-fa-lok"-net is the Bontoc word for war, but the expression "na-ma"-ka" -- take heads -- is used interchangeably with it.
For unknown generations these people have been fierce head-hunters. Nine-tenths of the men in the pueblos of Bontoc and Samoki wear on the breast the indelible tattoo emblem which proclaims them takers of human heads. The fawi of each ato in Bontoc has its basket containing skulls of human heads taken by members of the ato.
There are several different cla.s.ses of head-hunters among primitive Malayan peoples, but the continuation of the entire practice is believed to be due to the so-called "debt of life" -- that is, each group of people losing a head is in duty and honor bound to cancel the score by securing a head from the offenders. In this way the score is never ended or canceled, since one or the other group is always in debt.
It seems not improbable that the heads may have been cut off first as the best way of making sure that a fallen enemy was certainly slain. The head was at all events the best proof to a man"s tribesmen of the discharge of the debt of life; it was the trophy of success in defeating the foe. Whatever the cause of taking the head may have been with the first people, it would surely spread to others of a similar culture who warred with a head-taking tribe, as they would wish to appear as cruel, fierce, and courageous as the enemy.
Henry Ling Roth[33] quotes Sir Spencer St. John as follows concerning the Seribas Dyaks of Borneo (p. 142):
A certain influential man denied that head-hunting is a religious ceremony among them. It is merely to show their bravery and manliness, that it may be said that so-and-so has obtained heads. When they quarrel it is a constant phrase, "How many heads did your father or grandfather get?" If less than his own number, "Well, then, you have no occasion to be proud!" Thus the possession of heads gives them great considerations as warriors and men of wealth, the skulls being prized as the most valuable of goods.
Again he quotes St. John (p. 143):
Feasts in general are: To make their rice grow well, to cause the forest to abound with wild animals, to enable their dogs and snares to be successful in securing game, to have the streams swarm with fish, to give health and activity to the people themselves, and to insure fertility to their women. All these blessings the possessing and feasting of a fresh head are supposed to be the most efficient means of securing.
He quotes Axel. Dalrymple as follows (p. 141)
The Uru Ais believe that the persons whose heads they take will become their slaves in the next world.
On the same page he quotes others to the same point regarding other tribes of Borneo.
Roth states (p. 163):
From all accounts there can be little doubt that one of the chief incentives to getting heads is the desire to please the women. It may not always have been so and there may be and probably is the natural blood-thirstiness of the animal in man to account for a great deal of the head-taking.
He quotes Mrs. F. F. McDougall in her statement of a Sakaran legend of the origin of head-taking to the effect that the daughter of their great ancestor residing near the Evening Star "refused to marry until her betrothed brought her a present worth her acceptance." First the young man killed a deer which the girl turned from with disdain; then he killed and brought her one of the great monkeys of the forest, but it did not please her. "Then, in a fit of despair, the lover went abroad and killed the first man he met, and, throwing his victim"s head at the maiden"s feet, he exclaimed at the cruelty she had made him guilty of; but, to his surprise, she smiled and said that now he had discovered the only gift worthy of herself" (p. 163). In the three following pages of his book the author quotes three or four other writers who cite in detail instances wherein heads were taken simply to advance the slayer"s interests with women.
As showing the pa.s.sion for head-hunting among these people, St. John tells of a young man who, starting alone to get a head from a neighboring tribe, took the head of "an old woman of their own tribe, not very distantly related to the young fellow himself." When the fact was discovered "he was only fined by the chief of the tribe and the head taken from him and buried" (p. 161).
Again (p. 159):
The maxim of the ruffians (Kayans) is that out of their own country all are fair game. "Were we to meet our father, we would slay him." The head of a child or of a woman is as highly prized as that of a man.
Mr. Roth writes that Mr. F. Witti "found that the latter (Limberan) would not count as against themselves heads obtained on head-hunting excursions, but only those of people who had been making peaceful visits, etc. In fact, the sporting head-hunter bags what he can get, his declared friends alone excepted" (p. 160).
The Ibilao of Luzon, near Dupax, of the Province of Nueva Vizcaya, give the name "debt of life" to their head-hunting practice; but they have, in addition, other reasons for head taking. No man may marry who has not first taken a head; and every year after they harvest their palay the men go away for heads, often going journeys requiring a month of time in order to strike a particular group of enemies. The Christians of Dupax claim that in 1899 the Ibilao took the heads of three Dupax women who were working in the rice s.e.m.e.nteras close to the pueblo. These same Christians also claim that they have seen a human head above the stacks of harvested Ibilao palay; and they claim the custom is practiced annually, though the Ibilao deny it.
Some dozen causes for head-hunting among primitive Malayan peoples have been here cited. These include the debt of life, requirements for marriage, desire for abundant fruitage and harvest of cultivated products, the desire to be considered brave and manly, desire for exaltation in the minds of descendants, to increase wealth, to secure abundance of wild game and fish, to secure general health and activity of the people, general favor at the hands of the women, fecundity of women, and slaves in the future life.
From long continuance in the practice of head-hunting, many beliefs and superst.i.tions arise to foster it, until in the minds of the people these beliefs are greater factors in its perpetuation than the original one of the debt of life. The possession of a head, with the accompanying honor, feasts, and good omens, seems in many cases to be of first importance rather than the avenging of a life.
The custom of head taking came with the Igorot to Luzon, a custom of their ancestors in some earlier home. The people of Bontoc, however, say that their G.o.d, Lumawig, taught them to go to war. When, a very long time ago, he lived in Bontoc, he asked them to accompany him on a war expedition to LaG.o.d, the north country. They said they did not wish to go, but finally yielded to his urgings and followed him. On the return trip the men missed one of their companions, Gu-ma"-nub. Lumawig told them that Gu-ma"-nub had been killed by the people of the north. And thus their wars began -- Gu-ma"-nub must be avenged. They have also a legend in regard to head taking: The Moon, a woman called "Kabigat," was sitting one day making a copper pot, and one of the children of the man Chalchal, the Sun, came to watch her. She struck him with her molding paddle, cutting off his head. The Sun immediately appeared and placed the boy"s head back on his shoulders. Then the Sun said to the Moon: "Because you cut off my son"s head, the people of the Earth are cutting off each other"s heads, and will do so hereafter."
With the Bontoc men the taking of heads is not the pa.s.sion it seems to be with some of the people of Borneo. It, is, however, the almost invariable accompaniment of their interpueblo warfare. They invariably, too, take the heads of all killed on a head-hunting expedition. They have skulls of Spaniards, and also skulls of Igorot, secured when on expeditions of punishment or annihilation with the Spanish soldiers.
But the possession of a head is in no way a requisite to marriage. A head has no part in the ceremonies for palay fruitage and harvest, or in any of the numerous agricultural or health ceremonies of the year. It in no way affects a man"s wealth, and, so far as I have been able to learn, it in no way affects in their minds a man"s future existence. A beheaded man, far from being a slave, has special honor in the future state, but there seems to be none for the head taker. As shown by the Lumawig legend the debt of life is the primary cause of warfare in the minds of the people of Bontoc, and it is to-day a persistent cause. Moreover, since interpueblo warfare exists and head taking is its form, head-hunting is a necessity with an individual group of people in a state of nature. Without it a people could have no peace, and would be annihilated by some group which believed it a coward and an easy prey.
There is no doubt that the desire to be considered brave and manly has come to be a factor in Bontoc head taking. In my presence an Igorot once told a member of ato Ungkan that the men of his ato were like girls, because they had not taken heads. The statement was false, but the p.r.o.nounced judgment sincere. In this connection, also, it may be said that although the taking of a head is not a requisite to marriage, and they say that it does not win the men special favor from the women, yet, since it makes them manly and brave in the eyes of their fellows, it must also have its influence on the women.
The desire for exaltation in the minds of descendants also has a certain influence -- young men in quarrels sometimes brag of the number of heads taken by their ancestors, and the prowess or success of an ancestor seems to redound to the courage of the descendants; and it is an affront to purposely and seriously belittle the head-hunting results of a man"s father.
There can be no doubt that head-hunting expeditions are often made in response to a desire for activity and excitement, with all the feasting, dancing, and rest days that follow a successful foray. The explosive nature of a man"s emotional energy demands this bursting of the tension of everyday activities. In other words, the people get to itching for a head, because a head brings them emotional satisfaction.
It is believed that now the people of the two sister pueblos, Bontoc and Samoki, look on war and head-hunting somewhat as a game, as a dangerous, great sport, though not a pastime. It is a test of agility and skill, in which superior courage and brute force are minor factors.
Primarily a pueblo is an enemy of every other pueblo, but it is customary for pueblos to make terms of peace. Neighboring pueblos are usually, but not always, friendly. The second pueblo away is usually an enemy. On most of our trips through northern Luzon cargadors and guides could readily be secured to go to the nearest pueblo, but in most cases they absolutely refused to go on to the second pueblo, and could seldom be driven on by any argument or force. The actual negotiations for peace are generally between some two ato of the two interested pueblos, since the debt of life is most often between two ato.
Bontoc and Samoki claim never to have sued for peace -- a statement probably true, as they are by far the largest body of warriors in the culture area, and their war reputation is the worst. When one ato agrees on peace with another the entire pueblo honors the treaty.
The following peace agreements have been sought by outside pueblos in recent years of the following ato of Bontoc: Sakasakan sued for peace from Somowan, and Barlig from Pudpudchog; Tulubin, from Buyayyeng; Bitwagan, from Sipaat; Tukukan sought peace from both Amkawa and Polupo, and Sabangan also from Polupo; Sadanga, from Choko; and Baliw.a.n.g, from Longfoy.
The relations with two of these pueblos, Barlig and Sadanga, however, are now not peaceful. Bontoc has many kin in Lias, some two days to the east, the trail to which pa.s.ses Barlig; but communication between these pueblos of kin has ceased, because of the att.i.tude of Barlig. Communication between Bontoc and Tinglayan, northeast of the Bontoc area on the river, has also ceased, because of the enmity of Sadanga, which lies close to the trail between the two pueblos.
The peace ceremonial, to which a hog or carabao is brought by the entreating people and eaten by the two parties to the agreement, is called "pwi-din." The peace is sealed by some exchange, as of a battle-ax for a blanket, the people sued having the better part of the trade.
It now and then happens that of two pueblos at peace one loses a head to the other. If the one taking the head desires continued peace, some of its most influential men hasten to the other pueblo to talk the matter over. Very likely the other pueblo will say, "If you wish war, all right; if not, you bring us two carabaos, and we will still be friends." If no effort for peace is made by the offenders, each from that day considers the other an enemy.
There is a formal way of breaking the peace between two pueblos: Should ato Somowan of Bontoc, for instance, wish to break her peace with Sakasakan she holds a ceremonial meeting, called "men-pa-kel"." In this meeting the old men freely speak their minds; and when all matters are settled a messenger departs for Sakasakan bearing a battle-ax or spear -- the customary token of war with all these Bontoc peoples. The life of the war messenger is secure, but, if possible, he is a close relative of the challenged people. There is no record that such a person was ever killed while on his mission. The messenger presents himself to some old man of the ato or pueblo, and says, "In-ya"-lak nan sud-sud in-fu-sul"-ta-ko," which means, roughly, "I bring the challenge of war."
If the challenge is accepted, as it usually is, an ax or spear is given the messenger, and he hastens home to exclaim to his people, "In-tang-i"-cha men-fu-sul"-ta-ko" -- that is, "They care to contest in war."
A peace thus canceled is followed by a battle between practically all the men of both sides. It is customary for the challenging people, within a few days, to appear before the pueblo of their late friends, and the men at once come out in answer to the challenging cries of the visitors -- "Come out if you dare to fight us?" Or it may he that those challenged appear near the other pueblo before it has time to back its challenge.
If the challenged pueblo does not wish to fight, the spokesman tells the messenger that they do not wish war; they desire continued friendship; and the messenger returns to his people, not with a weapon of war, but with a chicken or a pig; and he repeats to his people the message he received from the old man.
After a peace has been canceled the two pueblos keep up a predatory warfare, with a head lost here and there, and with now and then a more serious battle, until one or the other again sues for peace, and has its prayer granted. In this predatory warfare the entire body of enemies, one or more ato, at times lays in hiding to take a few heads from lone people at their daily toil. Or when the country about a trail is covered with close tropical growth an enemy may hide close above the path and practically pick his man as he pa.s.ses beneath him. He hurls or thrusts his spear, and almost always escapes with his own life, frequently bursting through a line of people on the trail, and instantly disappearing in the cover below. Should the injured pueblo immediately retaliate, it finds its enemies alert and on guard.
At two places near the mountain trail between Samoki and Tulubin is a trellis-like structure called "ko"-mis." It consists of several posts set vertically in the ground, to which horizontal poles are tied, The posts are the stem and root sections of the beautiful tree ferm. They are set root end up, and the fine, matted rootlets present a compact surface which the Igorot has carved in the traditional shape of the "anito." Some of these heads have inlaid eyes and teeth of stone. Hung on the ko"-mis are baskets and frames in which chickens and pigs have been carried to the place for ceremonial feasting.
These two ko"-mis were built four years ago when Bontoc and Samoki had their last important head-hunting forays with Tulubin. When Bontoc or Samoki (and usually they fight together) sought Tulubin heads they spent a night at one of the ko"-mis, remaining at the first one, if the signs were propitious -- but, if not, they pa.s.sed on to the second, hoping for better success. They killed and ate their fowls and pigs in a ceremony called "fi-kat"," and, if all was well, approached the mountains near Tulubin and watched to waylay a few of her people when they came to the s.e.m.e.nteras in the early morning. If a crow flew cawing over the trail, or a snake or rat crossed before the warriors, or a rock rolled down the mountain side, or a clod of earth caved away under their feet, or if the little omen bird, "i"-chu," called, the expedition was abandoned, as these were bad omens.
The ceremony of the ko"-mis is held before all head-hunting expeditions, except in the unpremeditated outburst of a people to immediately punish the successful foray or ambush of some other. The ko"-mis is built along all Bontoc war trails, though no others are known having the "anito" heads. So persistent are the warriors if they have decided to go to a particular pueblo for heads that they often go day after day to the ko"-mis for eight or ten days before they are satisfied that no good omens will come to them. If the omens are persistently bad, it is customary for the warriors to return to their ato and hold the mo-ging ceremony, during which they bury under the stone pavement of the fawi court one of the skulls then preserved in the ato.
In this way they explode their extra emotions and partially work off their disappointment.
Occasionally a town has a bad strain of blood, and two or three men break away without common knowledge and take heads. The entire body of warriors in the pueblo where those murdered lived promptly rises and pours itself unheralded on the pueblo of the murderers. If these people are not warned the slaughter is terrible -- men, women, and children alike being slain. None is spared, except mere babes, unless they belong to the offended pueblo, marriage having taken them away from home. Preceding a known attack on a pueblo it is customary for the women and children to flee to the mountains, taking with them the dogs, pigs, chickens, and valuable household effects. However, Bontoc pueblo, because of her strength, is not so evacuated -- she expects no enemy strong enough to burst through and reach the defenseless.
In the Banawi area, where the dwellings are built on prominences frequently a hundred or more feet above the surrounding territory, they say the women often remain and a.s.sist in the defense by hurling rocks. They are safer there than they would be elsewhere.
Men go to war armed with a wooden shield, a steel battle-ax, and one to three steel or wooden spears. It is a man"s agility and skill in keeping his shield between himself and the enemy that preserves his life. Their battles are full of quick, incessant springing motion. There are sudden rushes and retreats, sneaking flank movements to cut an enemy off. The body is always in hand, always in motion, that it may respond instantly to every necessity. Spears are thrown with greatest accuracy and fatality up to 30 feet, and after the spears are discharged the contest, if continued, is at arms" length with the battle-axes. In such warfare no att.i.tude or position can safely be maintained except for the shortest possible time.
Challenges and bluffs are sung out from either side, and these bluffs are usually "called." In the last Bontoc-Tulubin foray a fine, strapping Tulubin warrior sung out that he wanted to fight ten men -- he was taken at his word so suddenly that his head was a Bontoc prize before his friends could rally to a.s.sist him.