For the purpose under consideration, the temperature of the pencil of heat applied to the stones in their several portions was kept constant.
It will be seen, therefore, that no great reliance can be placed on the heat test as applied to precious stones.
CHAPTER X.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.
H--MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC INFLUENCES.
The word "electricity" is derived from the Greek "elektron," which was the name for amber, a mineralised resin of extinct pine-trees. It was well-known to the people of pre-historic times; later to the early Egyptians, and, at a still later date, we have recorded how Thales--the Greek philosopher, who lived about the close of the 7th Century B.C., and was one of the "seven wise men"--discovered the peculiar property which we call "electricity" by rubbing dry silk on amber.
Many stones are capable of exhibiting the same phenomenon, not only by friction, as in Thales"s experiment, but also under the influence of light, heat, magnetism, chemical action, pressure, etc., and of holding or retaining this induced or added power for a long or short period, according to conditions and environment.
If a small pith ball is suspended from a non-conducting support, it forms a simple and ready means of testing the electricity in a stone.
According to whether the ball is repelled or attracted, so is the electricity in the stone made evident, though the electroscope gives the better results. By either of these methods it will be found that some of the stones are more capable of giving and receiving charges of electricity than are others; also that some are charged throughout with one kind only, either positive or negative, whilst others have both, becoming polarised electrically, having one portion of their substance negative, the other positive. For instance, amber, as is well known, produces negative electricity under the influence of friction, but in almost all cut stones, other than amber, the electricity produced by the same means is positive, whereas in the _uncut_ stones the electricity is negative, with the exception of the diamond, in which the electricity is positive.
When heated, some stones lose their electricity; others develop it, others have it reversed, the positive becoming negative and vice versa; others again, when heated, become powerfully magnetic and a.s.sume strong polarity. When electricity develops under the influence of heat, or is in any way connected with a rising or falling of temperature in a body, it is called "pyro-electricity," from the Greek word "pyros," fire. The phenomenon was first discovered in the tourmaline, and it is observed, speaking broadly, only in those minerals which are hemimorphic, that is, where the crystals have different planes or faces at their two ends, examples of which are seen in such crystals as those of axinite, boracite, smithsonite, topaz, etc., all of which are hemimorphic.
Taking the tourmaline as an example of the pyro-electric minerals, we find that when this is heated to between 50 F. and 300 F. it a.s.sumes electric polarity, becoming electrified positively at one end or pole and negatively at the opposite pole. If it is suspended on a silken thread from a gla.s.s rod or other non-conducting support in a similar manner to the pith ball, the tourmaline will be found to have become an excellent magnet. By testing this continually as it cools there will soon be perceived a point which is of extreme delicacy of temperature, where the magnetic properties are almost in abeyance. But as the tourmaline cools yet further, though but a fraction of a degree, the magnetic properties change; the positive pole becomes the negative, the negative having changed to the positive.
It is also interesting to note that if the tourmaline is not warmed so high as to reach a temperature of 50 F., or is heated so strongly as to exceed more than a few degrees above 300 F., then these magnetic properties do not appear, as no polarity is present. This polarity, or the presence of positive and negative electricity in one stone, may be strikingly ill.u.s.trated in a very simple manner:--If a little sulphur and red-lead, both in fine powder, are shaken up together in a paper or similar bag, the moderate friction of particle against particle electrifies both; one negatively, the other positively. If, then, a little of this now golden-coloured mixture is gently dusted over the surface of the tourmaline or other stone possessing electric polarity, a most interesting change is at once apparent. The red-lead separates itself from the sulphur and adheres to the negative portion of the stone, whilst the separated sulphur is at once attracted to the positive end, so that the golden-coloured mixture becomes slowly transformed into its two separate components--the brilliant yellow sulphur, and the equally brilliant red-lead. These particles form in lines and waves around the respective poles in beautiful symmetry, their positions corresponding with the directions of the lines of magnetic force, exactly as will iron filings round the two poles of a magnet.
From this it will clearly be seen how simple a matter it is to isolate the topaz, tourmaline, and all the pyro-electric stones from the non-pyro-electric, for science has not as yet been able to give to spurious stones these same electric properties, however excellent some imitations may be in other respects. Further, almost all minerals lose their electricity rapidly on exposure to atmospheric influences, even to dry air; the diamond retains it somewhat longer than most stones, though the sapphire, topaz, and a few others retain it almost as long again as the diamond, and these electric properties are some of the tests which are used in the examination of precious stones.
Those stones which show electricity on the application of pressure are such as the fluorspar, calcite, and topaz.
With regard to magnetism, the actual cause of this is not yet known with certainty. It is, of course, a self-evident fact that the magnetic iron ore, which is a form of peroxide, commonly known as magnet.i.te, or lodestone, has the power of attracting a magnet when swinging free, or of being attracted by a magnet, to account for which many plausible reasons have been advanced. Perhaps the most reasonable and acceptable of these is that this material contains molecules which have half their substance positively and the other half negatively magnetised.
Substances so composed, of which magnets are an example, may be made the means of magnetising other substances by friction, without they themselves suffering any loss; but it is not all substances that will respond to the magnet. For instance, common iron pyrites, FeS_{2}, is unresponsive, whilst the magnetic pyrites, which varies from 5FeS, Fe_{2}S_{3}, to 6FeS, Fe_{2}S_{3}, and is a sulphide of iron, is responsive both positively and negatively. Bis.m.u.th and antimony also are inactive, whilst almost all minerals containing even a small percentage of iron will deflect the magnetic needle, at least under the influence of heat. So that from the lodestone--the most powerfully magnetic mineral known--to those minerals possessing no magnetic action whatever, we have a long, graduated scale, in which many of the precious stones appear, those containing iron in their composition being more or less responsive, as already mentioned, and that either in their normal state, or when heated, and always to an extent depending on the quant.i.ty or percentage of iron they contain.
In this case, also, science has not as yet been able to introduce into an artificial stone the requisite quant.i.ty of iron to bring it the same a.n.a.lytically as the gem it is supposed to represent, without completely spoiling the colour. So that the behaviour of a stone in the presence of a magnet, to the degree to which it should or should not respond, is one of the important tests of a genuine stone.
CHAPTER XI.
THE CUTTING OF PRECIOUS STONES.
As existing in a state of nature precious stones do not, as a rule, exhibit any of those beautiful and wonderful properties which cause them to be so admired and sought after as to become of great intrinsic value, for their surfaces have become clouded by innumerable fine cuts or abrasions, because of the thousands of years during which they have been under pressure, or tumbled about in rivers, or subjected to the incessant friction caused by surrounding substances. All this occurring above and under ground has given them an appearance altogether different to that which follows cutting and polishing. Further, the shape of the stone becomes altered by the same means, and just as Michael Angelo"s figure was already in the marble, as he facetiously said, and all he had to do was to chip off what he did not require till he came to it, so is the same process of cutting and polishing necessary to give to the precious stones their full value, and it is the manner in which these delicate and difficult operations are performed that is now under consideration. Just as experience and skill are essential to the obtaining of a perfect figure from the block of marble, so must the cutting and polishing of a precious stone call for the greatest dexterity of which a workman is capable, experience and skill so great as to be found only in the expert, for in stones of great value even a slight mistake in the shaping and cutting would probably not only be wasteful of the precious material, but would utterly spoil its beauty, causing incalculable loss, and destroying altogether the refrangibility, l.u.s.tre and colour of the stone, thus rendering it liable to easy fracture: in every sense converting what would have been a rare and magnificent jewel to a comparatively valueless specimen.
One of the chief services rendered by precious stones is that they may be employed as objects of adornment, therefore, the stone must be cut of such a shape as will allow of its being set without falling out of its fastening--not too shallow or thin, to make it unserviceable and liable to fracture, and in the case of a transparent stone, not too deep for the light to penetrate, or much colour and beauty will be lost. Again, very few stones are flawless, and the position in which the flaw or flaws appear will, to a great extent, regulate the shape of the stones, for there are some positions in which a slight flaw would be of small detriment, because they would take little or no reflection, whilst in others, where the reflections go back and forth from facet to facet throughout the stone, a flaw would be magnified times without number, and the value of the stone greatly reduced. It is therefore essential that a flaw should be removed whenever possible, but, when this is not practicable, the expert will cut the stone into such a shape as will bring the defect into the least important part of the finished gem, or probably sacrifice the size and weight of the original stone by cutting it in two or more pieces of such a shape that the cutting and polishing will obliterate the defective portions. Such a method was adopted with the great Cullinan diamond, as described in Chapter IV. From this remarkable diamond a great number of magnificent stones were obtained, the two chief being the largest and heaviest at present known. Some idea of the size of the original stone may be gathered from the fact that the traditional Indian diamond, the "Great Mogul," is said to have weighed 280 carats. This stone, however, is lost, and some experts believe that it was divided, part of it forming the present famous Koh-i-nur; at any rate, all trace of the Great Mogul ceased with the looting of Delhi in 1739. The Koh-i-nur weighs a little over 106 carats; before cutting it weighed a shade over 186; the Cullinan, in the same state, weighed nearly 3254 carats. This ma.s.sive diamond was cut into about 200 stones, the largest, now placed in "The Royal Sceptre with the Cross," weighing 516-1/2 carats, the second, now placed under the historic ruby in "The Imperial State Crown," weighing 309-3/16ths carats. These two diamonds are now called "The Stars of Africa." Both these stones, but especially the larger, completely overshadow the notorious Koh-i-nur, and notwithstanding the flaw which appeared in the original stone, every one of the resulting pieces, irrespective of weight, is without the slightest blemish and of the finest colour ever known, for the great South African diamond is of a quality never even approached by any existing stone, being ideally perfect.
It requires a somewhat elaborate explanation to make clear the various styles of cut without ill.u.s.trations. They are usually divided into two groups, with curved, and with flat or plane surfaces. Of the first, the curved surfaces, opaque and translucent stones, such as the moonstone, cat"s-eye, etc., are mostly cut _en cabochon_, that is, dome-shaped or semi-circular at the top, flat on the underside, and when the garnet is so cut it is called a carbuncle. In strongly coloured stones, while the upper surface is semi-circular like the cabochon, the under surface is more or less deeply concave, sometimes following the curve of the upper surface, the thickness of the stone being in that case almost parallel throughout. This is called the "hollow" cabochon. Other stones are cut so that the upper surface is dome-shaped like the last two, but the lower is more or less convex, though not so deep as to make the stone spherical. This is called the "double" cabochon.
A further variety of cutting is known as the _goutte de suif_, or the "tallow-drop," which takes the form of a somewhat flattened or long-focus double-convex lens. The more complicated varieties of cut are those appearing in the second group, or those with plane surfaces. A very old form is the "rose" or "rosette"; in this the extreme upper centre, called the "crown," or "star," is usually composed of six triangles, the apexes of which are elevated and joined together, forming one point in the centre. From their bases descend a further series of triangles, the bases and apexes of which are formed by the bases and lower angles of the upper series. This lower belt is called the "teeth,"
under which the surface or base of the stone is usually flat, but sometimes partakes of a similar shape to the upper surface, though somewhat modified in form.
Another variety is called the "table cut," and is used for coloured stones. It has a flat top or "table" of a square or other shape, the edges of which slope outwards and form the "bezils" or that extended portion by which the stone is held in its setting. It will thus be seen that the outside of the stone is of the same shape as that of the "table," but larger, so that from every portion of the "table" the surface extends downwards, sloping outwards to the extreme size of the stone, the underside sloping downwards and inwards to a small and flat base, the whole, in section, being not unlike the section of a "pegtop."
A modification of this is known as the "step" cut, sometimes also called the "trap." Briefly, the difference between this and the last is that whereas the table has usually one bevel on the upper and lower surfaces, the trap has one or more steps in the sloping parts, hence its name.
The most common of all, and usually applied only to the diamond, is the "brilliant" cut. This is somewhat complicated, and requires detailed description. In section, the shape is substantially that of a pegtop with a flat "table" top and a small flat base. The widest portion is that on which the claws, or other form of setting, hold it securely in position. This portion is called the "girdle," and if we take this as a defining line, that portion which appears above the setting of this girdle, is called the "crown"; the portion below the girdle is called the "cula.s.se," or less commonly the "pavilion." Commencing with the girdle upwards, we have eight "cross facets" in four pairs, a pair on each side; each pair having their apexes together, meeting on the four extremities of two lines drawn laterally at right angles through the stone. It will, therefore, be seen that one side of each triangle coincides with the girdle, and as their bases do not meet, these s.p.a.ces are occupied by eight small triangles, called "skill facets," each of which has, as its base, the girdle, and the outer of its sides coincides with the base of the adjoining "cross facet." The two inner sides of each pair of skill facets form the half of a diamond or lozenge-shaped facet, called a "quoin," of which there are four. The inner or upper half of each of these four quoins forms the bases of two triangles, one at each side, making eight in all, which are called "star facets," and the inner lines of these eight star facets form the boundary of the top of the stone, called the "table." The inner lines also of the star facets immediately below the table and those of the cross facets immediately above the girdle form four "templets," or "bezils." We thus have above the girdle, thirty-three facets: 8 cross, 8 skill, 4 quoin, 8 star, 1 table, and 4 templets.
Reversing the stone and again commencing at the girdle, we have eight "skill facets," sometimes called the lower skill facets, the bases of which are on the girdle, their outer sides forming the bases of eight cross facets, the apexes of which meet on the extremities of the horizontal line, as in those above the girdle. If the basal lines of these cross facets, where they join the sides of the skill facets, are extended to the peak, or narrow end of the stone, these lines, together with the sides of the cross facets, will form four five-sided facets, called the "pavilions"; the s.p.a.ces between these four pavilions have their ends nearest the girdle formed by the inner sides of the skill facets, and of these s.p.a.ces, there will, of course, be four, which also are five-sided figures, and are called "quoins," so that there are eight five-sided facets--four large and four narrow--their bases forming a square, with a small portion of each corner cut away; the bases of the broader pavilions form the four sides, whilst the bases of the four narrower quoins cut off the corners of the square, and this flat portion, bounded by the eight bases, is called the "culet," but more commonly "collet." So that below the girdle, we find twenty-five facets: 8 cross, 8 skill, 4 pavilion, 4 quoin, and 1 collet.
These, with the 33 of the crown, make 58, which is the usual number of facets in a brilliant, though this varies with the character, quality, and size of the diamond. For instance, though this number is considered the best for normal stones, specially large ones often have more, otherwise there is danger of their appearing dull, and it requires a vast amount of skill and experience to decide upon the particular number and size of the facets that will best display the fire and brilliance of a large stone, for it is obvious that if, after months of cutting and polishing, it is found that a greater or smaller number of facets ought to have been allowed, the error cannot be retrieved without considerable loss, and probable ruin to the stone. In the case of the Cullinan diamonds, the two largest of which are called the Stars of Africa, 74 facets were cut in the largest portion, while in the next largest the experts decided to make 66, and, as already pointed out, these stones are, up to the present time, the most magnificent in fire, beauty and purity ever discovered.
The positions and angles of the facets, as well as the number, are of supreme importance, and diamond cutters--even though they have rules regulating these matters, according to the weight and size of the stone--must exercise the greatest care and exact.i.tude, for their decision once made is practically unalterable.
CHAPTER XII.
IMITATIONS, AND SOME OF THE TESTS, OF PRECIOUS STONES.
We now arrive at the point where it is necessary to discuss the manufacture and re-formation of precious stones, and also to consider a few of the tests which may be applied to _all_ stones. These are given here in order to save needless repet.i.tion; the tests which are specially applicable to individual stones will more properly be found under the description of the stone referred to, so that the present chapter will be devoted chiefly to generalities.
With regard to diamonds, the manufacture of these has not as yet been very successful. As will be seen on reference to Chapter II., on "the Origin of Precious Stones," it is generally admitted that these beautiful and valuable minerals are caused by chemically-charged water and occasionally, though not always, high temperature, but invariably beautified and brought to the condition in which they are obtained by the action of weight and pressure, extending unbroken through perhaps ages of time.
In these circ.u.mstances, science, though able to give chemical properties and pressure, cannot, of course, maintain these continuously for "ages," therefore the chemist must manufacture the jewels in such manner that he may soon see the results of his labours, and though real diamonds may be made, and with comparative ease, from boron in the amorphous or pure state along with aluminium, fused in a crucible at a high temperature, these diamonds are but microscopic, nor can a number of them be fused, or in any other way converted into a large single stone, so that imitation stones, to be of any service must be made of a good clear gla.s.s. The gla.s.s for this purpose is usually composed of 53.70 per cent. of red lead, 38.48 per cent. of pure quartz in fine powder, preferably water-ground, and 7.82 per cent. of carbonate of potash, the whole coloured when necessary with metallic oxides of a similar nature to the const.i.tuents of the natural stones imitated. But for colourless diamonds, the gla.s.s requires no such addition to tint it.
From the formula given is made the material known as "stra.s.s," or "paste," and stones made of it are mostly exhibited under and amongst brilliant artificial lights. The mere fact that they are sold cheaply is _prima facie_ proof that the stones are gla.s.s, for it is evident that a diamond, the commercial value of which might be 50 or more, cannot be purchased for a few shillings and be genuine. So long as this is understood and the stone is sold for the few shillings, no harm is done; but to offer it as a genuine stone and at the price of a genuine stone, would amount to fraud, and be punishable accordingly. Some of these "paste," or "white stones," as they are called in the trade, are cut and polished exactly like a diamond, and with such success as occasionally to deceive all but experts. Such imitations are costly, though, of course, not approaching the value of the real stones; it being no uncommon thing for valuable jewels to be duplicated in paste, whilst the originals are kept in the strong room of a bank or safe-deposit.
In all cases, however, a hard file will abrade the surface of the false stone. In chapter VII. we found that quartz is in the seventh degree of hardness, and an ordinary file is but a shade harder than this, so that almost all stones higher than No. 7 are unaffected by a file unless it is used roughly, so as to break a sharp edge. In order to prepare artificial diamonds and other stones for the file and various tests, they are often what is called "converted" into "doublets" or "triplets."
These are made as follows: the body of the gla.s.s is of paste, and on the "table" (see last chapter), and perhaps on the broader facets, there will be placed a very thin slab of the real stone, attached by cement.
In the case of the diamond, the body is clear, but in the coloured imitations the paste portion is made somewhat lighter in shade than the real stone would be, the portion below the girdle being coloured chemically, or mounted in a coloured backing. Such a stone will, of course, stand most tests, for the parts usually tested are genuine.
A stone of this nature is called a "doublet," and it is evident that when it is tested on the underside, it will prove too soft, therefore the "triplet" has been introduced. This is exactly on the lines of the doublet, except that the collet and perhaps the pavilions are covered also, so that the girdle, which is generally encased by the mounting, is the only surface-portion of paste. In other cases the whole of the crown is genuine, whilst often both the upper and lower portions are solid and genuine, the saving being effected by using a paste centre at the girdle, covered by the mounting. Such a stone as this last mentioned is often difficult to detect without using severe tests and desperate means, e.g.:--(a) by its crystalline structure (see Chapter III.); (b) by the cleavage planes (see Chapter IV.); (c) by the polariscope (see Chapter V.); (d) by the dichroscope (see Chapter VI.); (e) by specific gravity (see Chapter VIII.); (f) cutting off the mounting, and examining the girdle; (g) soaking the stone for a minute or so in a mixture said to have been originally discovered by M. D. Rothschild, and composed of hydrofluoric acid and ammonia; this will not answer for all stones, but is safe to use for the diamond and a few others. Should the jewel be gla.s.s, it will be etched, if not completely destroyed, but if genuine, no change will be apparent; (h) soaking the diamond for a few minutes in warm or cold water, in alcohol, in chloroform, or in all these in turn, when, if a doublet, or triplet, it will tumble to pieces where joined together by the cement, which will have been dissolved. It is, however, seldom necessary to test so far, for an examination under the microscope, even with low power, is usually sufficient to detect in the gla.s.s the air-bubbles which are almost inseparable from gla.s.s-mixtures, though they do not detract from the physical properties of the gla.s.s. The higher powers of the same instrument will almost always define the junction and the layer or layers of cement, no matter how delicate a film may have been used. Any one of these tests is sufficient to isolate a false stone.
Some of the softer genuine stones may be fused together with splinters, dust, and cuttings of the same stones, and of this product is formed a larger stone, which, though manufactured, is essentially perfectly real, possessing exactly the same properties as a naturally formed stone. Many such stones are obtained as large as an ordinary pin"s head, and are much used commercially for cl.u.s.ter-work in rings, brooches, for watch-jewels, scarf-pins, and the like, and are capable of being cut and polished exactly like an original stone. This is a means of using up to great advantage the lapidary"s dust, and though these products are real stones, perhaps a little more enriched in colour chemically, they are much cheaper than a natural stone of the same size and weight.
Some spurious stones have their colour improved by heat, by being tinged on the outside, by being tinted throughout with a fixed colour and placed in a clear setting; others, again, have a setting of a different hue, so that the reflection of this shall give additional colour and fire to the stone. For instance, gla.s.s diamonds are often set with the whole of the portion below the girdle hidden, this part of the stone being silvered like a mirror. Others are set open, being held at the girdle only, the portion covered by the setting being silvered. Other gla.s.s imitations, such as the opal, have a tolerably good representation of the "fiery" opal given to them by the admixture, in the gla.s.s, of a little oxide of tin, which makes it somewhat opalescent, and in the setting is placed a backing of red, gold, copper, or fiery-coloured tinsel, whilst the gla.s.s itself, at the back, is painted very thinly with a paint composed of well washed and dried fish-scales, reduced to an impalpable powder, mixed with a little pure, refined mastic, or other colourless varnish. This gives a good imitation of phosph.o.r.escence, as well as a slight pearliness, whilst the tinsel, seen through the paint and the curious milkiness of the gla.s.s, gives good "fire."
A knowledge of the colours natural to precious stones and to jewels generally is of great service in their rough cla.s.sification for testing, even though some stones are found in a variety of colours. An alphabetical list of the most useful is here appended, together with their average specific gravities and hardness. (See also Chapter VII. on "Hardness," and Chapter VIII. on "Specific Gravity.")
WHITE OR COLOURLESS STONES.
_Hardness._ _Specific Gravity._ (See Chapter VII.) (See Chapter VIII.)
Beryl 7-3/4 2.709-2.81 Corundum 9 3.90-4.16 Diamond 10 3.502-3.564 Jade 7 3.300-3.381 Opal 5-1/2-6-1/2 2.160-2.283 Phenakite 7-3/4 2.965 Quartz 7 2.670 Rock-crystal 7 2.521-2.795 Sapphire 9 4.049-4.060 Spinel 8 3.614-3.654 Topaz 8 3.500-3.520 Tourmaline 7-1/4 3.029 Zircon 7-1/2 4.700-4.880