The forms are exceedingly varied, but names are a.s.signed to each, either from the designers of the models or their special shapes or ornamentation; these may be found at length in _Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain_, 10th edition.
The beautiful _pate tendre_ ware of Sevres was always much esteemed, and never could have been produced at a reasonable price even at the time it was made, the expense of decoration as well as the risk in firing being so great. It was manufactured for royal presents or occasionally sold by express permission at exorbitant prices, which bore a more approximate value to the present exorbitant prices than is generally supposed.
GREAT BRITAIN
POTTERY
The earthenware vessels made in England previous to the 16th century were of a very coa.r.s.e description, rudely fashioned and usually devoid of ornament, sometimes cast in a mould in grotesque forms, and occasionally covered with a yellow or green glaze. Numerous specimens of early English cups are found in excavations in London and other parts of England, and may be identified by comparison with the vessels in Norman and mediaeval ma.n.u.scripts.
Although inexpensive, they were badly burned, and not very durable; and the German stoneware with a salt glaze was eagerly sought after throughout the 16th century, and imported in large quant.i.ties. These stone pots were usually impressed with the arms of German towns; a rose or other device in front, and a ferocious bearded visage under the spout. They were derisively called bellarmines, after the celebrated Cardinal Bellarmin, who in the 16th century made himself so conspicuous by his zealous opposition to the Reformed religion.
These bellarmines were in general use throughout England in the 16th and beginning of the 17th century at inns and public-houses for serving ale to the customers. The importation of these stone pots was always monopolised by the potters of Cologne, near which city they were made.
In the reign of Queen Elizabeth we find one William Simpson presenting a memorial that he may be allowed to bring "the drinking stone pottes made at Culloin" into this country, and requesting permission to make similar stone pots in England; but he was not successful in his suit.
In 1626, however, two other potters, named Rous and Cullyn, merchants of the city of London, obtained the exclusive privilege of making stone pots and jugs in this country, and a patent was granted them for fourteen years; the preamble states that "heretofore, and at this present, our kingdom of England has been served with stone pottes, stone jugges, and stone bottells, out of foreign parts, from beyond the seas."
STAFFORDSHIRE
When Dr. Plot wrote his natural history of this county in 1686 there were very few manufactories of pottery; he only speaks of one at Amblecott and another at Wednesbury; but he says: "The greatest pottery they have in this country is carried on at Burslem, near Newcastle-under-Lyme." The earthenware made here towards the end of the 17th century was of a very coa.r.s.e character, and the decoration extremely rude, consisting merely of patterns trailed over the surface in coloured clay, technically termed _slip_, diluted to the consistence of syrup, so that it could run out through a quill. The usual colours of these slips were orange, white, and red, the orange forming the ground and the white and red the paint. After the dishes had been thus ornamented they were glazed with lead ore beaten into dust, finely sifted, and strewed over the surface, which gave it the gloss but not the colour. The vessels remained twenty-four hours in the kiln, and were then drawn for sale, princ.i.p.ally to poor cratemen, who hawked them at their backs all over the country.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 234.--TYG. _With four handles. Dated_ 1621.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 235.--MUG. _With two handles. Dated_ 1682.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 236.--PLATEAU. _With Charles II. and his Queen, in relief. By_ RALPH TOFT. 1677.]
The forms of these vessels were tygs or mugs, with two or more handles for pa.s.sing round a table, candlesticks, dishes, &c. The earliest names found upon them are Thomas and Ralph Toft, William Talor, Joseph Gla.s.s; all names still known in Staffordshire.
BURSLEM. The family of WEDGWOOD was of long standing at Burslem, and many members of it were employed in making pottery long before the birth of the great potter, Josiah Wedgwood. His father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, as well as many of his other relations, were all engaged in the trade. Josiah Wedgwood was born in 1730, at Burslem; he was the youngest of thirteen children; his father, Thomas Wedgwood, died when Josiah was only nine years old. His eldest brother, Thomas, succeeded his father as a potter, and Josiah was bound apprentice to him in 1744, after the expiration of which he left his brother"s house to make knife handles, imitation agate, and tortoisesh.e.l.l small wares, at Stoke. Here, in 1752, he entered into partnership with John Harrison, which only lasted two years.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 237.--VASE. _Pale blue jasper, with subjects in relief._]
Next Josiah Wedgwood went into partnership with Thomas Whieldon of Fenton Low, one of the most eminent potters of his day, and they remained together five years; while here Wedgwood also produced that fine green glaze which covered his dessert services, in imitation of leaves.
At the expiration of the partnership in 1759 Wedgwood returned to Burslem, and commenced business on his own account at the "Churchyard"
works. He soon became so successful that he was compelled to enlarge his establishment, and to take over the "Ivy House" works. He engaged the services of his cousin, Thomas Wedgwood, who had gained his experience at the Worcester works, and in 1765 he took him into partnership, and three years later Thomas Bentley joined the firm. The first ware which gained him reputation was his fine cream-coloured ware, which remained a staple article from 1762 down to the time of his decease, and after royalty had approved of it the name was changed to Queen"s ware.
Wedgwood also produced, about this date, a sort of red ware, formed of the same ochreous clay as was used by the Elers nearly a century before; it required no glaze except what it derived from friction on the wheel and lathe, and was covered with engine-turned ornament; and in 1766 he began to make a black ware, which he called basaltes or black Egyptian.
The business increased so much that he was obliged to open a new manufactory at ETRURIA in 1769.
In 1773 he made "a fine white terra-cotta of great beauty and delicacy, suitable for cameos, portraits, and bas-reliefs"; this was the forerunner of the jasper ware, which became by constant attention and successive improvements the most beautiful of all his wares. In 1776 the solid jasper ware was invented, which, however, attained its greatest perfection ten years later. In the manufacture of this elegant ware Wedgwood largely employed sulphate of barytes, and for many years derived great profits, none of the workmen having any idea of the nature of the material upon which they were operating, until a letter containing a bill of parcels referring to a quant.i.ty of the article fell into the hands of a dishonest servant, who told the secret, and deprived the inventor of that particular source of emolument: for when the same article was made by those who employed inferior workmen, to whom they only paid one-fourth of the salary given by Wedgwood, the price of jasper ware became so reduced that he was unable to employ those exquisite modellers whom he had formerly engaged to superintend that branch of the manufacture.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 238.--VASE. _Of basaltes ware._]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 239.--THE PORTLAND VASE. _Of black and white jasper._]
In 1785 a "jasper dip" was introduced, in which the white clay vessels were dipped, and received a coating of jasper, instead of being jasper throughout. This was considered a great improvement, and caused an increase of 20 per cent. in the price.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 240.--TEAPOT, CADDY, AND PLATE. _With printed transfer._]
Flaxman was engaged by Wedgwood and Bentley as early as 1775, and he furnished them with drawings and models. After Bentley"s death in 1780 Flaxman"s fame as a sculptor obtained him more important work, but still, as time permitted, he worked for Wedgwood up to the time of his departure for Rome in 1787.
Josiah Wedgwood died on the 3rd of January 1795, in his 65th year.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 241.--SIX JASPER CAMEOS.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 242.--VASE. _Granite ground, with gilt festoons and handles._]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 243.--EWER. _Of agate ware._]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 244.--AN OBELISK, _by_ RALPH WOOD, _and_ A TEA SET, _by_ AARON WOOD.]
In 1773 RALPH SHAWE of Burslem took out a patent for chocolate-coloured ware, striped with white and lined with white, glazed with salt. He afterwards transferred his factory to France.
RALPH WOOD was established at Burslem about 1730, and was succeeded about 1750 by his son AARON WOOD, who served his apprenticeship to Thos. Wedgwood; he was a very clever cutter of moulds for stoneware plates and dishes, with raised pattern borders, &c., which have been erroneously termed Elizabethan. Cream ware is said to have been invented by him. He was succeeded, about 1770, by his son ENOCH WOOD, who was also a sculptor, and made many busts of eminent men. His successors were Wood and Caldwell, who continued the manufacture of busts and groups.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 245.--STATUETTE. _Chaucer, by_ RALPH WOOD.]
MOSES STEEL was a manufacturer at Burslem in 1715. The name of a descendant is found on a vase, with blue ground and white figures in relief, in the style of Wedgwood, in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 246.--VASE.]
SHELTON. ASTBURY of Shelton, early in the 18th century, made red crouch, and white stoneware. It is said he derived his knowledge of mixing the clays by pretending to be an idiot and obtaining employment at the Elers" manufactory at Bradwell; after gaining their secret, he set up in business against them.
The first use of calcined flints as an ingredient in the composition of pottery is attributed to the younger Astbury; it led to the manufacture of fine fayence, and paved the way for the great improvements afterwards achieved by Wedgwood.
SAMUEL HOLLINS of Shelton established about 1760 a manufactory of fine red ware teapots; he procured the clay from Bradwell. He was succeeded about 1777 by T. and J. HOLLINS.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 247.--GREEN BOWL. _With ornaments in relief. Signed "S. Hollins."_]
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 248.--BASIN. _With white ground and blue figures in relief. Stamped T. and J. Hollins._]
The NEW HALL CHINA WORKS at Shelton owed their origin to the purchase of Champion"s (Cookworthy"s) patent by a company of potters in 1777, and were the first porcelain manufactory in Staffordshire. The ware made here was not of a fine character; inferior artists were employed in its production, and it was never held in any great esteem. The manufacture consequently soon fell to decay, after many changes. The mark is the name of the works in a double ring.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 249.--CUP AND SAUCER. _Painted with flowers._]
BRADWELL. A potter to whom Staffordshire was indebted for great improvements in the ware was JOHN PHILIP ELERS, who about 1690 came over from Holland and settled at Bradwell. He was descended from a n.o.ble family of Saxony.
Elers was a clever chemist, and discovered the art of mixing the clays of Staffordshire to greater perfection than had ever before been attained. He manufactured to a considerable extent an improved kind of red pottery, in imitation of that of j.a.pan, while by the addition of manganese to the clays, he made a fine black ware, which a century afterwards was adopted and improved by Wedgwood.
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 250.--TEAPOT. _Of red ware, with flowers in relief._]
HANLEY. Shaw mentions a Mr. MILES of Miles"s Bank, Hanley, who produced the brown stoneware about 1700. There is in the Victoria and Albert Museum a fayence barrel of brown glaze with gilt hoops, dating apparently from the first half of the 18th century, and it is impressed with the name of Miles (see Fig. 251).
[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 251.--BARREL.]