The highest stage in moral culture at which we can arrive, is when we recognise that we ought to control our thoughts, and "not even in inmost thought to think again the sins that made the past so pleasant to us."[134] Whatever makes any bad action familiar to the mind, renders its performance by so much the easier. As Marcus Aurelius long ago said, "Such as are thy habitual thoughts, such also will be the character of thy mind; for the soul is dyed by the thoughts."[135]
Our great philosopher, Herbert Spencer, has recently explained his views on the moral sense. He says,[136] "I believe that the experiences of utility organised and consolidated through all past generations of the human race, have been producing corresponding modifications, which, by continued transmission and acc.u.mulation, have become in us certain faculties of moral intuition-certain emotions responding to right and wrong conduct, which have no apparent basis in the individual experiences of utility." There is not the least inherent improbability, as it seems to me, in virtuous tendencies being more or less strongly inherited; for, not to mention the various dispositions and habits transmitted by many of our domestic animals, I have heard of cases in which a desire to steal and a tendency to lie appeared to run in families of the upper ranks; and as stealing is so rare a crime in the wealthy cla.s.ses, we can hardly account by accidental coincidence for the tendency occurring in two or three members of the same family. If bad tendencies are transmitted, it is probable that good ones are likewise transmitted. Excepting through the principle of the transmission of moral tendencies, we cannot understand the differences believed to exist in this respect between the various races of mankind. We have, however, as yet, hardly sufficient evidence on this head.
Even the partial transmission of virtuous tendencies would be an immense a.s.sistance to the primary impulse derived directly from the social instincts, and indirectly from the approbation of our fellow-men.
Admitting for the moment that virtuous tendencies are inherited, it appears probable, at least in such cases as chast.i.ty, temperance, humanity to animals, &c., that they become first impressed on the mental organisation through habit, instruction, and example, continued during several generations in the same family, and in a quite subordinate degree, or not at all, by the individuals possessing such virtues, having succeeded best in the struggle for life. My chief source of doubt with respect to any such inheritance, is that senseless customs, superst.i.tions, and tastes, such as the horror of a Hindoo for unclean food, ought on the same principle to be transmitted. Although this in itself is perhaps not less probable than that animals should acquire inherited tastes for certain kinds of food or fear of certain foes, I have not met with any evidence in support of the transmission of superst.i.tious customs or senseless habits.
Finally, the social instincts which no doubt were acquired by man, as by the lower animals, for the good of the community, will from the first have given to him some wish to aid his fellows, and some feeling of sympathy. Such impulses will have served him at a very early period as a rude rule of right and wrong. But as man gradually advanced in intellectual power and was enabled to trace the more remote consequences of his actions; as he acquired sufficient knowledge to reject baneful customs and superst.i.tions; as he regarded more and more not only the welfare but the happiness of his fellow-men; as from habit, following on beneficial experience, instruction, and example, his sympathies became more tender and widely diffused, so as to extend to the men of all races, to the imbecile, the maimed, and other useless members of society, and finally to the lower animals,-so would the standard of his morality rise higher and higher. And it is admitted by moralists of the derivative school and by some intuitionists, that the standard of morality has risen since an early period in the history of man.[137]
As a struggle may sometimes be seen going on between the various instincts of the lower animals, it is not surprising that there should be a struggle in man between his social instincts, with their derived virtues, and his lower, though at the moment, stronger impulses or desires. This, as Mr. Galton[138] has remarked, is all the less surprising, as man has emerged from a state of barbarism within a comparatively recent period. After having yielded to some temptation we feel a sense of dissatisfaction, a.n.a.logous to that felt from other unsatisfied instincts, called in this case conscience; for we cannot prevent past images and impressions continually pa.s.sing through our minds, and these in their weakened state we compare with the ever-present social instincts, or with habits gained in early youth and strengthened during our whole lives, perhaps inherited, so that they are at last rendered almost as strong as instincts. Looking to future generations, there is no cause to fear that the social instincts will grow weaker, and we may expect that virtuous habits will grow stronger, becoming perhaps fixed by inheritance. In this case the struggle between our higher and lower impulses will be less severe, and virtue will be triumphant.
_Summary of the two last Chapters._-There can be no doubt that the difference between the mind of the lowest man and that of the highest animal is immense. An anthropomorphous ape, if he could take a dispa.s.sionate view of his own case, would admit that though he could form an artful plan to plunder a garden-though he could use stones for fighting or for breaking open nuts, yet that the thought of fashioning a stone into a tool was quite beyond his scope. Still less, as he would admit, could he follow out a train of metaphysical reasoning, or solve a mathematical problem, or reflect on G.o.d, or admire a grand natural scene. Some apes, however, would probably declare that they could and did admire the beauty of the coloured skin and fur of their partners in marriage. They would admit, that though they could make other apes understand by cries some of their perceptions and simpler wants, the notion of expressing definite ideas by definite sounds had never crossed their minds. They might insist that they were ready to aid their fellow-apes of the same troop in many ways, to risk their lives for them, and to take charge of their orphans; but they would be forced to acknowledge that disinterested love for all living creatures, the most n.o.ble attribute of man, was quite beyond their comprehension.
Nevertheless the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, is certainly one of degree and not of kind. We have seen that the senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, such as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, &c., of which man boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even sometimes in a well-developed condition, in the lower animals. They are also capable of some inherited improvement, as we see in the domestic dog compared with the wolf or jackal. If it be maintained that certain powers, such as self-consciousness, abstraction, &c., are peculiar to man, it may well be that these are the incidental results of other highly-advanced intellectual faculties; and these again are mainly the result of the continued use of a highly developed language. At what age does the new-born infant possess the power of abstraction, or become self-conscious and reflect on its own existence? We cannot answer; nor can we answer in regard to the ascending organic scale. The half-art and half-instinct of language still bears the stamp of its gradual evolution. The enn.o.bling belief in G.o.d is not universal with man; and the belief in active spiritual agencies naturally follows from his other mental powers. The moral sense perhaps affords the best and highest distinction between man and the lower animals; but I need not say anything on this head, as I have so lately endeavoured to shew that the social instincts,-the prime principle of man"s moral const.i.tution[139]-with the aid of active intellectual powers and the effects of habit, naturally lead to the golden rule, "As ye would that men should do to you, do ye to them likewise;" and this lies at the foundation of morality.
In a future chapter I shall make some few remarks on the probable steps and means by which the several mental and moral faculties of man have been gradually evolved. That this at least is possible ought not to be denied, when we daily see their development in every infant; and when we may trace a perfect gradation from the mind of an utter idiot, lower than that of the lowest animal, to the mind of a Newton.
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE MANNER OF DEVELOPMENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
Variability of body and mind in man-Inheritance-Causes of variability-Laws of variation the same in man as in the lower animals-Direct action of the conditions of life-Effects of the increased use and disuse of parts-Arrested development-Reversion-Correlated variation-Rate of increase-Checks to increase-Natural selection-Man the most dominant animal in the world-Importance of his corporeal structure-The causes which have led to his becoming erect-Consequent changes of structure-Decrease in size of the canine teeth-Increased size and altered shape of the skull-Nakedness-Absence of a tail-Defenceless condition of man.
We have seen in the first chapter that the h.o.m.ological structure of man, his embryological development and the rudiments which he still retains, all declare in the plainest manner that he is descended from some lower form. The possession of exalted mental powers is no insuperable objection to this conclusion. In order that an ape-like creature should have been transformed into man, it is necessary that this early form, as well as many successive links, should all have varied in mind and body.
It is impossible to obtain direct evidence on this head; but if it can be shewn that man now varies-that his variations are induced by the same general causes, and obey the same general laws, as in the case of the lower animals-there can be little doubt that the preceding intermediate links varied in a like manner. The variations at each successive stage of descent must, also, have been in some manner acc.u.mulated and fixed.
The facts and conclusions to be given in this chapter relate almost exclusively to the probable means by which the transformation of man has been effected, as far as his bodily structure is concerned. The following chapter will be devoted to the development of his intellectual and moral faculties. But the present discussion likewise bears on the origin of the different races or species of mankind, whichever term may be preferred.
It is manifest that man is now subject to much variability. No two individuals of the same race are quite alike. We may compare millions of faces, and each will be distinct. There is an equally great amount of diversity in the proportions and dimensions of the various parts of the body; the length of the legs being one of the most variable points.[140]
Although in some quarters of the world an elongated skull, and in other quarters a short skull prevails, yet there is great diversity of shape even within the limits of the same race, as with the aborigines of America and South Australia,-the latter a race "probably as pure and h.o.m.ogeneous in blood, customs, and language as any in existence"-and even with the inhabitants of so confined an area as the Sandwich Islands.[141] An eminent dentist a.s.sures me that there is nearly as much diversity in the teeth, as in the features. The chief arteries so frequently run in abnormal courses, that it has been found useful for surgical purposes to calculate from 12,000 corpses how often each course prevails.[142] The muscles are eminently variable: thus those of the foot were found by Prof. Turner[143] not to be strictly alike in any two out of fifty bodies; and in some the deviations were considerable.
Prof. Turner adds that the power of performing the appropriate movements must have been modified in accordance with the several deviations. Mr.
J. Wood has recorded[144] the occurrence of 295 muscular variations in thirty-six subjects, and in another set of the same number no less than 558 variations, reckoning both sides of the body as one. In the last set, not one body out of the thirty-six was "found totally wanting in departures from the standard descriptions of the muscular system given in anatomical text-books." A single body presented the extraordinary number of twenty-five distinct abnormalities. The same muscle sometimes varies in many ways: thus Prof. Macalister describes[145] no less than twenty distinct variations in the _palmaris accessorius_.
The famous old anatomist, Wolff,[146] insists that the internal viscera are more variable than the external parts: _Nulla particula est quae non aliter et aliter in aliis se habeat hominibus._ He has even written a treatise on the choice of typical examples of the viscera for representation. A discussion on the beau-ideal of the liver, lungs, kidneys, &c., as of the human face divine, sounds strange in our ears.
The variability or diversity of the mental faculties in men of the same race, not to mention the greater differences between the men of distinct races, is so notorious that not a word need here be said. So it is with the lower animals, as has been ill.u.s.trated by a few examples in the last chapter. All who have had charge of menageries admit this fact, and we see it plainly in our dogs and other domestic animals. Brehm especially insists that each individual monkey of those which he kept under confinement in Africa had its own peculiar disposition and temper: he mentions one baboon remarkable for its high intelligence; and the keepers in the Zoological Gardens pointed out to me a monkey, belonging to the New World division, equally remarkable for intelligence. Rengger, also, insists on the diversity in the various mental characters of the monkeys of the same species which he kept in Paraguay; and this diversity, as he adds, is partly innate, and partly the result of the manner in which they have been treated or educated.[147]
I have elsewhere[148] so fully discussed the subject of Inheritance that I need here add hardly anything. A greater number of facts have been collected with respect to the transmission of the most trifling, as well as of the most important characters in man than in any of the lower animals; though the facts are copious enough with respect to the latter.
So in regard to mental qualities, their transmission is manifest in our dogs, horses, and other domestic animals. Besides special tastes and habits, general intelligence, courage, bad and good temper, &c., are certainly transmitted. With man we see similar facts in almost every family; and we now know through the admirable labours of Mr. Galton[149]
that genius, which implies a wonderfully complex combination of high faculties, tends to be inherited; and, on the other hand, it is too certain that insanity and deteriorated mental powers likewise run in the same families.
With respect to the causes of variability we are in all cases very ignorant; but we can see that in man as in the lower animals, they stand in some relation with the conditions to which each species has been exposed during several generations. Domesticated animals vary more than those in a state of nature; and this is apparently due to the diversified and changing nature of their conditions. The different races of man resemble in this respect domesticated animals, and so do the individuals of the same race when inhabiting a very wide area, like that of America. We see the influence of diversified conditions in the more civilised nations, the members of which belong to different grades of rank and follow different occupations, presenting a greater range of character than the members of barbarous nations. But the uniformity of savages has often been exaggerated, and in some cases can hardly be said to exist.[150] It is nevertheless an error to speak of man, even if we look only to the conditions to which he has been subjected, as "far more domesticated"[151] than any other animal. Some savage races, such as the Australians, are not exposed to more diversified conditions than are many species which have very wide ranges. In another and much more important respect, man differs widely from any strictly domesticated animal; for his breeding has not been controlled, either through methodical or unconscious selection. No race or body of men has been so completely subjugated by other men, that certain individuals have been preserved and thus unconsciously selected, from being in some way more useful to their masters. Nor have certain male and female individuals been intentionally picked out and matched, except in the well-known case of the Prussian grenadiers; and in this case man obeyed, as might have been expected, the law of methodical selection; for it is a.s.serted that many tall men were reared in the villages inhabited by the grenadiers with their tall wives.
If we consider all the races of man, as forming a single species, his range is enormous; but some separate races, as the Americans and Polynesians, have very wide ranges. It is a well-known law that widely-ranging species are much more variable than species with restricted ranges; and the variability of man may with more truth be compared with that of widely-ranging species, than with that of domesticated animals.
Not only does variability appear to be induced in man and the lower animals by the same general causes, but in both the same characters are affected in a closely a.n.a.logous manner. This has been proved in such full detail by G.o.dron and Quatref.a.ges, that I need here only refer to their works.[152] Monstrosities, which graduate into slight variations, are likewise so similar in man and the lower animals, that the same cla.s.sification and the same terms can be used for both, as may be seen in Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire"s great work.[153] This is a necessary consequence of the same laws of change prevailing throughout the animal kingdom. In my work on the variation of domestic animals, I have attempted to arrange in a rude fashion the laws of variation under the following heads:-The direct and definite action of changed conditions, as shewn by all or nearly all the individuals of the same species varying in the same manner under the same circ.u.mstances. The effects of the long-continued use or disuse of parts. The cohesion of h.o.m.ologous parts. The variability of multiple parts. Compensation of growth; but of this law I have found no good instances in the case of man. The effects of the mechanical pressure of one part on another; as of the pelvis on the cranium of the infant in the womb. Arrests of development, leading to the diminution or suppression of parts. The reappearance of long-lost characters through reversion. And lastly, correlated variation. All these so-called laws apply equally to man and the lower animals; and most of them even to plants. It would be superfluous here to discuss all of them;[154] but several are so important for us, that they must be treated at considerable length.
_The direct and definite action of changed conditions._-This is a most perplexing subject. It cannot be denied that changed conditions produce some effect, and occasionally a considerable effect, on organisms of all kinds; and it seems at first probable that if sufficient time were allowed this would be the invariable result. But I have failed to obtain clear evidence in favour of this conclusion; and valid reasons may be urged on the other side, at least as far as the innumerable structures are concerned, which are adapted for special ends. There can, however, be no doubt that changed conditions induce an almost indefinite amount of fluctuating variability, by which the whole organisation is rendered in some degree plastic.
In the United States, above 1,000,000 soldiers, who served in the late war, were measured, and the States in which they were born and reared recorded.[155] From this astonishing number of observations it is proved that local influences of some kind act directly on stature; and we further learn that "the State where the physical growth has in great measure taken place, and the State of birth, which indicates the ancestry, seem to exert a marked influence on the stature." For instance it is established, "that residence in the Western States, during the years of growth, tends to produce increase of stature." On the other hand, it is certain that with sailors, their manner of life delays growth, as shewn "by the great difference between the statures of soldiers and sailors at the ages of 17 and 18 years." Mr. B. A. Gould endeavoured to ascertain the nature of the influences which thus act on stature; but he arrived only at negative results, namely, that they did not relate to climate, the elevation of the land, soil, nor even "in any controlling degree" to the abundance or need of the comforts of life.
This latter conclusion is directly opposed to that arrived at by Villerme from the statistics of the height of the conscripts in different parts of France. When we compare the differences in stature between the Polynesian chiefs and the lower orders within the same islands, or between the inhabitants of the fertile volcanic and low barren coral islands of the same ocean,[156] or again between the Fuegians on the eastern and western sh.o.r.es of their country, where the means of subsistence are very different, it is scarcely possible to avoid the conclusion that better food and greater comfort do influence stature. But the preceding statements shew how difficult it is to arrive at any precise result. Dr. Beddoe has lately proved that, with the inhabitants of Britain, residence in towns and certain occupations have a deteriorating influence on height; and he infers that the result is to a certain extent inherited, as is likewise the case in the United States. Dr. Beddoe further believes that wherever a "race attains its maximum of physical development, it rises highest in energy and moral vigour."[157]
Whether external conditions produce any other direct effect on man is not known. It might have been expected that differences of climate would have had a marked influence, as the lungs and kidneys are brought into fuller activity under a low temperature, and the liver and skin under a high one.[158] It was formerly thought that the colour of the skin and the character of the hair were determined by light or heat; and although it can hardly be denied that some effect is thus produced, almost all observers now agree that the effect has been very small, even after exposure during many ages. But this subject will be more properly discussed when we treat of the different races of mankind. With our domestic animals there are grounds for believing that cold and damp directly affect the growth of the hair; but I have not met with any evidence on this head in the case of man.
_Effects of the increased Use and Disuse of Parts._-It is well known that use strengthens the muscles in the individual, and complete disuse, or the destruction of the proper nerve, weakens them. When the eye is destroyed the optic nerve often becomes atrophied. When an artery is tied, the lateral channels increase not only in diameter, but in the thickness and strength of their coats. When one kidney ceases acting from disease, the other increases in size and does double work. Bones increase not only in thickness, but in length, from carrying a greater weight.[159] Different occupations habitually followed lead to changed proportions in various parts of the body. Thus it was clearly ascertained by the United States Commission[160] that the legs of the sailors employed in the late war were longer by 0.217 of an inch than those of the soldiers, though the sailors were on an average shorter men; whilst their arms were shorter by 1.09 of an inch, and therefore out of proportion shorter in relation to their lesser height. This shortness of the arms is apparently due to their greater use, and is an unexpected result; but sailors chiefly use their arms in pulling and not in supporting weights. The girth of the neck and the depth of the instep are greater, whilst the circ.u.mference of the chest, waist, and hips is less in sailors than in soldiers.
Whether the several foregoing modifications would become hereditary, if the same habits of life were followed during many generations, is not known, but is probable. Rengger[161] attributes the thin legs and thick arms of the Payaguas Indians to successive generations having pa.s.sed nearly their whole lives in canoes, with their lower extremities motionless. Other writers have come to a similar conclusion in other a.n.a.logous cases. According to Cranz,[162] who lived for a long time with the Esquimaux, "the natives believe that ingenuity and dexterity in seal-catching (their highest art and virtue) is hereditary; there is really something in it, for the son of a celebrated seal-catcher will distinguish himself though he lost his father in childhood." But in this case it is mental apt.i.tude, quite as much as bodily structure, which appears to be inherited. It is a.s.serted that the hands of English labourers are at birth larger than those of the gentry.[163] From the correlation which exists, at least in some cases,[164] between the development of the extremities and of the jaws, it is possible that in those cla.s.ses which do not labour much with their hands and feet, the jaws would be reduced in size from this cause. That they are generally smaller in refined and civilised men than in hard-working men or savages, is certain. But with savages, as Mr. Herbert Spencer[165] has remarked, the greater use of the jaws in chewing coa.r.s.e, uncooked food, would act in a direct manner on the masticatory muscles and on the bones to which they are attached. In infants long before birth, the skin on the soles of the feet is thicker than on any other part of the body;[166] and it can hardly be doubted that this is due to the inherited effects of pressure during a long series of generations.
It is familiar to every one that watchmakers and engravers are liable to become short-sighted, whilst sailors and especially savages are generally long-sighted. Short-sight and long-sight certainly tend to be inherited.[167] The inferiority of Europeans, in comparison with savages, in eyesight and in the other senses, is no doubt the acc.u.mulated and transmitted effect of lessened use during many generations; for Rengger[168] states that he has repeatedly observed Europeans, who had been brought up and spent their whole lives with the wild Indians, who nevertheless did not equal them in the sharpness of their senses. The same naturalist observes that the cavities in the skull for the reception of the several sense-organs are larger in the American aborigines than in Europeans; and this no doubt indicates a corresponding difference in the dimensions of the organs themselves.
Blumenbach has also remarked on the large size of the nasal cavities in the skulls of the American aborigines, and connects this fact with their remarkably acute power of smell. The Mongolians of the plains of Northern Asia, according to Pallas, have wonderfully perfect senses; and Prichard believes that the great breadth of their skulls across the zygomas follows from their highly-developed sense-organs.[169]
The Quechua Indians inhabit the lofty plateaux of Peru, and Alcide d"Orbigny states[170] that from continually breathing a highly rarefied atmosphere they have acquired chests and lungs of extraordinary dimensions. The cells, also, of the lungs are larger and more numerous than in Europeans. These observations have been doubted; but Mr. D.
Forbes carefully measured many Aymaras, an allied race, living at the height of between ten and fifteen thousand feet; and he informs me[171]
that they differ conspicuously from the men of all other races seen by him, in the circ.u.mference and length of their bodies. In his table of measurements, the stature of each man is taken at 1000, and the other measurements are reduced to this standard. It is here seen that the extended arms of the Aymaras are shorter than those of Europeans, and much shorter than those of Negroes. The legs are likewise shorter, and they present this remarkable peculiarity, that in every Aymara measured the femur is actually shorter than the tibia. On an average the length of the femur to that of the tibia is as 211 to 252; whilst in two Europeans measured at the same time, the femora to the tibiae were as 244 to 230; and in three Negroes as 258 to 241. The humerus is likewise shorter relatively to the fore-arm. This shortening of that part of the limb which is nearest to the body, appears to be, as suggested to me by Mr. Forbes, a case of compensation in relation with the greatly increased length of the trunk. The Aymaras present some other singular points of structure, for instance, the very small projection of the heel.
These men are so thoroughly acclimatised to their cold and lofty abode, that when formerly carried down by the Spaniards to the low Eastern plains, and when now tempted down by high wages to the gold-washings, they suffer a frightful rate of mortality. Nevertheless Mr. Forbes found a few pure families which had survived during two generations; and he observed that they still inherited their characteristic peculiarities.
But it was manifest, even without measurement, that these peculiarities had all decreased; and on measurement their bodies were found not to be so much elongated as those of the men on the high plateau; whilst their femora had become somewhat lengthened, as had their tibiae but in a less degree. The actual measurements may be seen by consulting Mr. Forbes"
memoir. From these valuable observations, there can, I think, be no doubt that residence during many generations at a great elevation tends, both directly and indirectly, to induce inherited modifications in the proportions of the body.[172]
Although man may not have been much modified during the latter stages of his existence through the increased or decreased use of parts, the facts now given shew that his liability in this respect has not been lost; and we positively know that the same law holds good with the lower animals. Consequently we may infer, that when at a remote epoch the progenitors of man were in a transitional state, and were changing from quadrupeds into bipeds, natural selection would probably have been greatly aided by the inherited effects of the increased or diminished use of the different parts of the body.
_Arrests of Development._-Arrested development differs from arrested growth, as parts in the former state continue to grow whilst still retaining their early condition. Various monstrosities come under this head, and some are known to be occasionally inherited, as a cleft-palate. It will suffice for our purpose to refer to the arrested brain-development of microcephalous idiots, as described in Vogt"s great memoir.[173] Their skulls are smaller, and the convolutions of the brain are less complex than in normal men. The frontal sinus, or the projection over the eyebrows, is largely developed, and the jaws are prognathous to an "_effrayant_" degree; so that these idiots somewhat resemble the lower types of mankind. Their intelligence and most of their mental faculties are extremely feeble. They cannot acquire the power of speech, and are wholly incapable of prolonged attention, but are much given to imitation. They are strong and remarkably active, continually gamboling and jumping about, and making grimaces. They often ascend stairs on all-fours; and are curiously fond of climbing up furniture or trees. We are thus reminded of the delight shewn by almost all boys in climbing trees; and this again reminds us how lambs and kids, originally alpine animals, delight to frisk on any hillock, however small.
_Reversion._-Many of the cases to be here given might have been introduced under the last heading. Whenever a structure is arrested in its development, but still continues growing until it closely resembles a corresponding structure in some lower and adult member of the same group, we may in one sense consider it as a case of reversion. The lower members in a group give us some idea how the common progenitor of the group was probably constructed; and it is hardly credible that a part arrested at an early phase of embryonic development should be enabled to continue growing so as ultimately to perform its proper function, unless it had acquired this power of continued growth during some earlier state of existence, when the present exceptional or arrested structure was normal. The simple brain of a microcephalous idiot, in as far as it resembles that of an ape, may in this sense be said to offer a case of reversion. There are other cases which come more strictly under our present heading of reversion. Certain structures, regularly occurring in the lower members of the group to which man belongs, occasionally make their appearance in him, though not found in the normal human embryo; or, if present in the normal human embryo, they become developed in an abnormal manner, though this manner of development is proper to the lower members of the same group. These remarks will be rendered clearer by the following ill.u.s.trations.
In various mammals the uterus graduates from a double organ with two distinct orifices and two pa.s.sages, as in the marsupials, into a single organ, showing no signs of doubleness except a slight internal fold, as in the higher apes and man. The rodents exhibit a perfect series of gradations between these two extreme states. In all mammals the uterus is developed from two simple primitive tubes, the inferior portions of which form the cornua; and it is in the words of Dr. Farre "by the coalescence of the two cornua at their lower extremities that the body of the uterus is formed in man; while in those animals in which no middle portion or body exists, the cornua remain ununited. As the development of the uterus proceeds, the two cornua become gradually shorter, until at length they are lost, or, as it were, absorbed into the body of the uterus." The angles of the uterus are still produced into cornua, even so high in the scale as in the lower apes, and their allies the lemurs.
Now in women anomalous cases are not very infrequent, in which the mature uterus is furnished with cornua, or is partially divided into two organs; and such cases, according to Owen, repeat "the grade of concentrative development," attained by certain rodents. Here perhaps we have an instance of a simple arrest of embryonic development, with subsequent growth and perfect functional development, for either side of the partially double uterus is capable of performing the proper office of gestation. In other and rarer cases, two distinct uterine cavities are formed, each having its proper orifice and pa.s.sage.[174] No such stage is pa.s.sed through during the ordinary development of the embryo, and it is difficult to believe, though perhaps not impossible, that the two simple, minute, primitive tubes could know how (if such an expression may be used) to grow into two distinct uteri, each with a well-constructed orifice and pa.s.sage, and each furnished with numerous muscles, nerves, glands and vessels, if they had not formerly pa.s.sed through a similar course of development, as in the case of existing marsupials. No one will pretend that so perfect a structure as the abnormal double uterus in woman could be the result of mere chance. But the principle of reversion, by which long-lost dormant structures are called back into existence, might serve as the guide for the full development of the organ, even after the lapse of an enormous interval of time.
Professor Canestrini,[175] after discussing the foregoing and various a.n.a.logous cases, arrives at the same conclusion as that just given. He adduces, as another instance, the malar bone, which, in some of the Quadrumana and other mammals, normally consists of two portions. This is its condition in the two-months-old human ftus; and thus it sometimes remains, through arrested development, in man when adult, more especially in the lower prognathous races. Hence Canestrini concludes that some ancient progenitor of man must have possessed this bone normally divided into two portions, which subsequently became fused together. In man the frontal bone consists of a single piece, but in the embryo and in children, and in almost all the lower mammals, it consists of two pieces separated by a distinct suture. This suture occasionally persists, more or less distinctly, in man after maturity, and more frequently in ancient than in recent crania, especially as Canestrini has observed in those exhumed from the Drift and belonging to the brachycephalic type. Here again he comes to the same conclusion as in the a.n.a.logous case of the malar bones. In this and other instances presently to be given, the cause of ancient races approaching the lower animals in certain characters more frequently than do the modern races, appears to be that the latter stand at a somewhat greater distance in the long line of descent from their early semi-human progenitors.
Various other anomalies in man, more or less a.n.a.logous with the foregoing, have been advanced by different authors[176] as cases of reversion; but these seem not a little doubtful, for we have to descend extremely low in the mammalian series before we find such structures normally present.[177]
In man the canine teeth are perfectly efficient instruments for mastication. But their true canine character, as Owen[178] remarks, "is indicated by the conical form of the crown, which terminates in an obtuse point, is convex outward and flat or sub-concave within, at the base of which surface there is a feeble prominence. The conical form is best expressed in the Melanian races, especially the Australian. The canine is more deeply implanted, and by a stronger fang than the incisors." Nevertheless this tooth no longer serves man as a special weapon for tearing his enemies or prey; it may, therefore, as far as its proper function is concerned, be considered as rudimentary. In every large collection of human skulls some may be found, as Hackel[179]
observes, with the canine teeth projecting considerably beyond the others in the same manner, but in a less degree, as in the anthropomorphous apes. In these cases, open s.p.a.ces between the teeth in the one jaw are left for the reception of the canines belonging to the opposite jaw. An inters.p.a.ce of this kind in a Kaffir skull, figured by Wagner, is surprisingly wide.[180] Considering how few ancient skulls have been examined in comparison with recent skulls, it is an interesting fact that in at least three cases the canines project largely; and in the Naulette jaw they are spoken of as enormous.[181]
The males alone of the anthropomorphous apes have their canines fully developed; but in the female gorilla, and in a less degree in the female orang, these teeth project considerably beyond the others; therefore the fact that women sometimes have, as I have been a.s.sured, considerably projecting canines, is no serious objection to the belief that their occasional great development in man is a case of reversion to an ape-like progenitor. He who rejects with scorn the belief that the shape of his own canines, and their occasional great development in other men, are due to our early progenitors having been provided with these formidable weapons, will probably reveal by sneering the line of his descent. For though he no longer intends, nor has the power, to use these teeth as weapons, he will unconsciously retract his "snarling muscles" (thus named by Sir C. Bell)[182] so as to expose them ready for action, like a dog prepared to fight.
Many muscles are occasionally developed in man, which are proper to the Quadrumana or other mammals. Professor Vlacovich[183] examined forty male subjects, and found a muscle, called by him the ischiopubic, in nineteen of them; in three others there was a ligament which represented this muscle; and in the remaining eighteen no trace of it. Out of thirty female subjects this muscle was developed on both sides in only two, but in three others the rudimentary ligament was present. This muscle, therefore, appears to be much more common in the male than in the female s.e.x; and on the principle of the descent of man from some lower form, its presence can be understood; for it has been detected in several of the lower animals, and in all of these it serves exclusively to aid the male in the act of reproduction.