During the same period, and especially from 1820 to 1835, a more continuous and effective migration of southern Negroes was being promoted by the Quakers of Virginia and North Carolina.[1] One of their purposes was educational. Convinced that the "buying, selling, and holding of men in slavery" is a sin, these Quakers with a view to future manumission had been "careful of the moral and intellectual training of such as they held in servitude."[2] To elevate their slaves to the plane of men, southern Quakers early hit upon the scheme of establishing in the Northwest such Negroes as they had by education been able to equip for living as citizens. When the reaction in the South made it impossible for the Quakers to continue their policy of enlightening the colored people, these philanthropists promoted the migration of the blacks to the Northwest Territory with still greater zeal. Most of these settlements were made in Hamilton, Howard, Wayne, Randolph, Vigo, Gibson, Grant, Rush, and Tipton Counties, Indiana, and in Darke County, Ohio.[3] Prominent among these promoters was Levi Coffin, the Quaker Abolitionist of North Carolina, and reputed President of the Underground Railroad. He left his State and settled among Negroes at Newport, Indiana.[4] a.s.sociated with these leaders also were Benjamin Lundy of Tennessee and James G. Birney, once a slaveholder of Huntsville, Alabama. The latter manumitted his slaves and apprenticed and educated some of them in Ohio.[5]
[Footnote 1: Wright, "Negro Rural Communities" (_Southern Workman_, vol. x.x.xvii., p. 158); and Ba.s.sett, _Slavery in North Carolina_, p.
68.]
[Footnote 2: A Brief Statement of the Rise and Progress of the Testimony, etc.]
[Footnote 3: Wright, "Rural Negro Communities in Indiana" (_Southern Workman_, vol. x.x.xvii., pp. 162-166); and Ba.s.sett, _Slavery in North Carolina_, pp. 67 and 68.]
[Footnote 4: Coffin, _Reminiscences_, p. 106.]
[Footnote 5: Birney, _James G. Birney and His Times_, p. 139.]
The importance of this movement to the student of education lies in the fact that it effected an unequal distribution of intelligent Negroes. The most ambitious and enlightened ones were fleeing to free territory. As late as 1840 there were more intelligent blacks in the South than in the North.[1] The number of southern colored people who could read was then decidedly larger than that of such persons found in the free States. The continued migration of Negroes to the North, despite the operation of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, made this distribution more unequal. While the free colored population of the slave States increased only 23,736 from 1850 to 1860, that of the free States increased 29,839. In the South only Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, and North Carolina showed a noticeable increase in the number of free persons of color during the decade immediately preceding the Civil War. This element of the population had only slightly increased in Alabama, Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, Virginia, Louisiana, South Carolina, and the District of Columbia. The number of free Negroes of Florida remained practically constant. Those of Arkansas, Mississippi, and Texas diminished. In the North, of course, the tendency was in the other direction. With the exception of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York, which had about the same free colored population in 1860 as they had in 1850, there was a general increase in the number of Negroes in the free States. Ohio led in this respect having had during this period an increase of 11,394.[2]
[Footnote 1: Jones, _Religious Instruction of the Negroes_, p. 115.]
[Footnote 2: See statistics on pages 237-240.]
On comparing the educational statistics of these sections this truth becomes more apparent. In 1850 there were 4,354 colored children attending school in the South, but by 1860 this number had dropped to 3,651. Slight increases were noted only in Alabama, Missouri, Delaware, South Carolina, and the District of Columbia. Georgia and Mississippi had then practically deprived all Negroes of this privilege. The former, which reported one colored child as attending school in 1850, had just seven in 1860; the latter had none in 1850 and only two in 1860. In all other slave States the number of pupils of African blood had materially decreased.[1] In the free States there were 22,107 colored children in school in 1850, and 28,978 in 1860.
Most of these were in New Jersey, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania, which in 1860 had 2,741; 5,671; 5,694; and 7,573, respectively.[2]
[Footnote 1: STATISTICS OF THE FREE COLORED POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1850
ATTENDING ADULTS UNABLE SCHOOL TO READ STATE Population Males Females Total Males Females Total
Alabama 2,265 33 35 68 108 127 235 Arkansas 608 6 5 11 61 55 116 California 962 1 0 1 88 29 117 Connecticut 7,693 689 575 1,264 292 273 567 Delaware 18,073 92 95 187 2,724 2,921 5,645 Florida 932 29 37 66 116 154 270 Georgia 2,931 1 0 1 208 259 467 Illinois 5,436 162 161 323 605 624 1,229 Indiana 11,262 484 443 927 1,024 1,146 2,170 Iowa 333 12 5 17 15 18 33 Kentucky 10,011 128 160 288 1,431 1,588 3,029 Louisiana 17,462 629 590 1,219 1,038 2,351 3,389 Maine 1,356 144 137 281 77 58 135 Maryland 74,723 886 730 1,616 9,422 11,640 21,062 Ma.s.sachusetts 9,064 726 713 1,439 375 431 806 Michigan 2,583 106 101 207 201 168 369 Mississippi 930 0 0 0 75 48 123 Missouri 2,618 23 17 40 271 226 497 New Hampshire 520 41 32 73 26 26 52 New Jersey 23,810 1,243 1,083 2,326 2,167 2,250 4,417 New York 49,069 2,840 2,607 5,447 3,387 4,042 7,429 North Carolina 27,463 113 104 217 3,099 3,758 6,857 Ohio 25,279 1,321 1,210 2,531 2,366 2,624 4,990 Pennsylvania 53,626 3,385 3,114 6,499 4,115 5,229 9,344**
[** was 6,344 in error.**]
Rhode Island 3,670 304 247 551 130 137 267 South Carolina 8,960 54 26 80 421 459 880 Tennessee 6,422 40 30 70 506 591 1,097 Texas 397 11 9 20 34 24 58 Vermont 718 58 32 90 32 19 51 Virginia 54,333 37 27 64 5,141 6,374 11,515 Wisconsin 635 32 35 67 55 37 92 District of Columbia 10,059 232 235 467 1,106 2,108 3,214 Minnesota 30 0 2 2 0 0 0 New Mexico 207 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oregon 24 2 0 2 3 2 5 Utah 22 0 0 0 1 0 1
Total 434,495 13,864 12,597 26,461 40,722 49,800 90,522
See Sixth Census of the United States, 1850.]
[Footnote 2: See statistics on pages 237-240.]
The report on illiteracy shows further the differences resulting from the divergent educational policies of the two sections. In 1850 there were in the slave States 58,444 adult free Negroes who could not read, and in 1860 this number had reached 59,832. In all such commonwealths except Arkansas, Louisiana, Florida, and Mississippi there was an increase in illiteracy among the free blacks. These States, however, were hardly exceptional, because Arkansas and Mississippi had suffered a decrease in their free colored population, that of Florida had remained the same, and the difference in the case of Louisiana was very slight. The statistics of the Northern States indicate just the opposite trend. Notwithstanding the increase of persons of color resulting from the influx of the migrating element, there was in all free States exclusive of California, Illinois, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, and Pennsylvania a decrease in the illiteracy of Negroes. But these States hardly const.i.tute exceptions; for California, Wisconsin, and Minnesota had very few colored inhabitants in 1850, and the others had during this decade received so many fugitives in the rough that race prejudice and its concomitant drastic legislation impeded the educational progress of their transplanted freedmen.[1] In the Northern States where this condition did not obtain, the benevolent whites had, in cooperation with the Negroes, done much to reduce illiteracy among them during these years.
[Footnote 1: STATISTICS OF THE FREE COLORED POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1860
STATE Population| ATTENDING SCHOOL | ADULTS UNABLE TO READ +----- +----- +------ +-------- +------- +---- -- Males | Males Females | Females Total | Total ---------------- +-------- +----- +------- +------- +------- +------- +------ Alabama 2,690 48 65 114 192 263 455 Arkansas 144 3 2 5 10 13 23 California 4,086 69 84 153 497 207 704 Connecticut 8,627 737 641 1,378 181 164 345 Delaware 19,829 122 128 250 3,056 3,452 6,508 Florida 932 3 6 9 48 72 120 Georgia 3,500 3 4 7 255 318 573 Illinois 7,628 264 347 611 632 695 1,327 Indiana 11,428 570 552 1,122 869 904 1,773 Iowa 1,069 77 61 138 92 77 169 Kansas 625 8 6 14 25 38 63 Kentucky 10,684 102 107 209 1,113 1,350 2,463 Louisiana 18,647 153 122 275 485 717 1,202 Maine 1,327 148 144 292 25 21 46 Maryland 83,942 687 668 1,355 9,904 11,795 21,699 Ma.s.sachusetts 9,602 800 815 1,615 291 368 659 Michigan 6,797 555 550 1,105 558 486 1,044 Minnesota 259 8 10 18 6 6 12 Mississippi 773 0 2 2 50 60 110 Missouri 3,572 76 79 155 371 514 885 New Hampshire 494 49 31 80 15 19 34 New Jersey 25,318 1,413 1,328 2,741 1,720 2,085 3,805 New York 49,005 2,955 2,739 5,694 2,653 3,260 5,913 North Carolina 30,463 75 58 133 3,067 3,782 6,849 Ohio 36,673 2,857 2,814 5,671 2,995 3,191 6,186 Oregon 128 0 0 2 7 5 12 Pennsylvania 56,949 3,882 3,691 7,573 3,893 5,466 9,359 Rhode Island 3,952 276 256 532 119 141 260 South Carolina 9,914 158 207 365 633 783 1,416 Tennessee 7,300 28 24 52 743 952 1,695 Texas 355 4 7 11 25 37 62 Vermont 709 65 50 115 27 20 47 Virginia 58,042 21 20 41 5,489 6,008 12,397 Wisconsin 1,171 62 50 112 53 45 98
TERRITORIES
Colorado 46 No returns Dakota 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 District Columbia 11,131 315 363 678 1,131 2,224 3,375 Nebraska 67 1 1 2 6 7 13 Nevada 45 0 0 0 6 1 7 New Mexico 85 0 0 0 12 15 27 Utah 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 Washington 30 0 0 0 1 0 1
Total 488,070 16,594 16,035 32,629 41,275 50,461 91,736
See Seventh Census of the United States, vol. 1.]
How the problem of educating these people on free soil was solved can be understood only by keeping in mind the factors of the migration.
Some of these Negroes had unusual capabilities. Many of them had in slavery either acquired the rudiments of education or developed sufficient skill to outwit the most determined pursuers. Owing so much to mental power, no man was more effective than the successful fugitive in instilling into the minds of his people the value of education. Not a few of this type readily added to their attainments to equip themselves for the best service. Some of them, like Reverend Josiah Henson, William Wells Brown, and Frederick Dougla.s.s, became leaders, devoting their time not only to the cause of abolition, but also to the enlightenment of the colored people. Moreover, the free Negroes migrating to the North were even more effective than the fugitive slaves in advancing the cause of education.[1] A larger number of the former had picked up useful knowledge. In fact, the prohibition of the education of the free people of color in the South was one of the reasons they could so readily leave their native homes.[2] The free blacks then going to the Northwest Territory proved to be decidedly helpful to their benefactors in providing colored churches and schools with educated workers, who otherwise would have been brought from the East at much expense.
[Footnote 1: Howe, _The Refugee from Slavery_, p. 77.]
[Footnote 2: Russell, _The Free Negro in Virginia_ (Johns Hopkins University Studies, series x.x.xi., No. 3, p. 107).]
On perusing this sketch the educator naturally wonders exactly what intellectual progress was made by these groups on free soil. This question cannot be fully answered for the reason that extant records give no detailed account of many colored settlements which underwent upheaval or failed to endure. In some cases we learn simply that a social center flourished and was then destroyed. On "Black Friday,"
January 1, 1830, eighty Negroes were driven out of Portsmouth, Ohio, at the request of one or two hundred white citizens, set forth in an urgent memorial.[1] After the pa.s.sage of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 the colored population of Columbia, Pennsylvania, dropped from nine hundred and forty-three to four hundred and eighty-seven.[2] The Negro community in the northwestern part of that State was broken up entirely.[3] The African Methodist and Baptist churches of Buffalo lost many communicants. Out of a membership of one hundred and fourteen, the colored Baptist church of Rochester lost one hundred and twelve, including its pastor. About the same time eighty-four members of the African Baptist church of Detroit crossed into Canada.[4] The break-up of these churches meant the end of the day and Sunday-schools which were maintained in them. Moreover, the migration of these Negroes aroused such bitter feeling against them that their schoolhouses were frequently burned. It often seemed that it was just as unpopular to educate the blacks in the North as in the South. Ohio, Illinois, and Oregon enacted laws to prevent them from coming into those commonwealths.
[Footnote 1: Evans, _A History of Scioto County, Ohio_, p. 613.]
[Footnote 2: Siebert, _The Underground Railroad_, p. 249.]
[Footnote 3: _Ibid_., p. 249.]
[Footnote 4: _Ibid_., p. 250.]
We have, however, sufficient evidence of large undertakings to educate the colored people then finding homes in less turbulent parts beyond the Ohio. In the first place, almost every settlement made by the Quakers was a center to which Negroes repaired for enlightenment.
In other groups where there was no such opportunity, they had the cooperation of certain philanthropists in providing facilities for their mental and moral development. As a result, the free blacks had access to schools and churches in Hamilton, Howard, Randolph, Vigo, Gibson, Rush, Tipton, Grant, and Wayne counties, Indiana,[1] and Madison, Monroe, and St. Clair counties, Illinois. There were colored schools and churches in Logan, Clark, Columbiana, Guernsey, Jefferson, Highland, Brown, Darke, Shelby, Green, Miami, Warren, Scioto, Gallia, Ross, and Muskingum counties, Ohio.[2] Augustus Wattles said that with the a.s.sistance of abolitionists he organized twenty-five such schools in Ohio counties after 1833.[3] Brown County alone had six. Not many years later a Negro settlement in Gallia County, Ohio, was paying a teacher fifty dollars a quarter.[4]
[Footnote 1: Wright, "Negro Rural Communities in Indiana," _Southern Workman_, vol. x.x.xvii., p. 165; Boone, _The History of Education in Indiana_, p. 237; and Simmons, _Men of Mark_, pp. 590 and 948.]
[Footnote 2: Simmons, _Men of Mark_, p. 948; and Hickok, _The Negro in Ohio_, p. 85.]
[Footnote 3: Howe, _Historical Collections of Ohio_, p. 355.]
[Footnote 4: Hickok, _The Negro in Ohio_, p. 89.]
Still better colored schools were established in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and in Springfield, Columbus, and Cincinnati, Ohio.
While the enlightenment of the few Negroes in Pittsburgh did not require the systematic efforts put forth to elevate the race elsewhere, much was done to provide them educational facilities in that city. Children of color first attended the white schools there just as they did throughout the State of Pennsylvania.[1] But when larger numbers of them collected in this gateway to the Northwest, either race feeling or the pressing needs of the migrating freedmen brought about the establishment of schools especially adapted to their instruction. Such efforts were frequent after 1830.[2] John Thomas Johnson, a teacher of the District of Columbia, moved to Pittsburgh in 1838 and became an instructor in a colored school of that city.[3]
Cleveland had an "African School" as early as 1832. John Malvin, the moving spirit of the enterprise in that city, organized about that time "The School Fund Society" which established other colored schools in Cincinnati, Columbus, and Springfield.[4]
[Footnote 1: Wickersham, _Education in Pennsylvania_, p. 248.]
[Footnote 2: _Life of Martin R. Delaney_, p. 33.]
[Footnote 3: _Special Report of the U.S. Com. of Ed._, 1871, p. 214.]
[Footnote 4: Hickok, _The Negro in Ohio_, p. 88.]
The concentration of the freedmen and fugitives at Cincinnati was followed by efforts to train them for higher service. The Negroes themselves endeavored to provide their own educational facilities in opening in 1820 the first colored school in that city. This school did not continue long, but another was established the same year.
Thereafter one Mr. Wing, who kept a private inst.i.tution, admitted persons of color to his evening cla.s.ses. On account of a lack of means, however, the Negroes of Cincinnati did not receive any systematic instruction before 1834. After that year the tide turned in favor of the free blacks of that section, bringing to their a.s.sistance a number of daring abolitionists, who helped them to educate themselves. Friends of the race, consisting largely of the students of Lane Seminary, had then organized colored Sunday and evening schools, and provided for them scientific and literary lectures twice a week.
There was a permanent colored school in Cincinnati in 1834. In 1835 the Negroes of that city contributed $150 of the $1000 expended for their education. Four years later, however, they raised $889.03 for this purpose, and thanks to their economic progress, this sacrifice was less taxing than that of 1835.[1] In 1844 Rev. Hiram Gilmore opened there a high school which among other students attracted P.B.S.
Pinchback, later Governor of Louisiana. Mary E. Miles, a graduate of the Normal School at Albany, New York, served as an a.s.sistant of Gilmore after having worked among her people in Ma.s.sachusetts and Pennsylvania.[2]
[Footnote 1: _Ibid._, p. 83.]
[Footnote 1: Delany, _The Condition of the Colored People_, etc., 132.]