2. _u_ of the French, _u_ of the Germans, _y_ of the Danes.--This sound is intermediate to the _ee_ in _feet_, and the _oo_ in _book_.
3. _o chiuso_, of the Italians.--Intermediate to the _o_ in _note_, and the _oo_ in _book_.
For these sounds we have the following sequences: _a_ in _fate_, _e ferme_, _ee_ in _feet_, _u_ in _ubel_ (German), _oo_ in _book_, _o chiuso_, _o_ in _note_. And this is the true order of alliance among the vowels; _a_ in _fate_, and _o_ in _note_, being the extremes; the other sounds being transitional or intermediate. As the English orthography is at once singular and faulty, it exhibits the relationship but imperfectly.
-- 203. _The system of the mutes._--Preliminary to the consideration of the system of the mutes, let it be observed:--
1. that the _th_ in _thin_ is a simple single sound, different from the _th_ in _thine_, and that it may be expressed by the sign .
2. That the _th_ in _thine_ is a simple single sound, different from the _th_ in _thin_, and that it may be expressed by the sign .
3. That the _sh_ in _shine_ is a simple single sound, and that it may be expressed by the sign [sigma] (Greek [Greek: sigma]).
4. That the _z_ in _azure_, _glazier_ (French _j_), is a simple single sound, and that it may be expressed by the sign [zeta] (Greek [Greek: zeta]). {146}
5. That in the Laplandic, and possibly in many other languages, there are two peculiar sounds, different from any in English, German, and French, &c., and that they may respectively be expressed by the sign _[kappa]_ and the sign _[gamma]_ (Greek [Greek: kappa] and [Greek: gamma]).
With these preliminary notices we may exhibit the system of the sixteen mutes; having previously determined the meaning of two fresh terms, and bearing in mind what was said concerning the words sharp and flat, continuous and explosive.
_Lene and aspirate._--From the sound of _p_ in _pat_, the sound of _f_ in _fat_ differs in a certain degree. This difference is not owing to a difference in their sharpness or flatness. Each is sharp. Neither is it owing to a difference in their continuity or explosiveness; although, at the first glance, such might appear to be the case. _F_ is continuous, whilst _p_ is explosive. _S_, however, is continuous, and _s_, in respect to the difference under consideration, is cla.s.sed not with _f_ the continuous sound but with _p_ the explosive one. I am unable to account for the difference between _p_ and _f_. It exists: it is visible. It has been expressed by a term. _P_ is called _lene_, _f_ is called _aspirate_.
As _f_ is to _p_ so is _v_ to b.
As _v_ is to _b_ so is __ to _t_.
As __ is to _t_ so is __ to d.
As __ is to _d_ so is _[kappa]_ to _k_.
As _[kappa]_ is to _k_ so is _[gamma]_ to _g_.
As _[gamma]_ is to _g_ so is _[sigma]_ to _s_.
As _[sigma]_ is to _s_ so is _[zeta]_ to _z_.
Hence _p_, _b_, _t_, _d_, _k_, _g_, _s_, _z_, are _lene_; _f_, _v_, __, __, _[kappa]_, _[gamma]_, _[sigma]_, _[zeta]_, are _aspirate_. Also _p_, _f_, _t_, __, _k_, _[kappa]_, _s_, _[sigma]_, are _sharp_, whilst _b_, _v_, _d_, __, _g_, _[gamma]_, _z_, _[zeta]_, are _flat_; so that there is a double series of relationship capable of being expressed as follows:--
_Lene_. _Aspirate_.
_Sharp_. _Flat_. _Sharp_. _Flat_.
_p_ _b_ _f_ _v_ _t_ _d_ __ __ _k_ _g_ _[kappa]_ _[gamma]_ _s_ _z_ _[sigma]_ _[zeta]_
_Sharp_. _Flat_.
_Lene_. _Aspirate_. _Lene_. _Aspirate_ _p_ _f_ _b_ _v_ _t_ __ _d_ __ _k_ _[kappa]_ _g_ _[gamma]_ _s_ _[sigma]_ _z_ _[zeta]_
{147}
I am not familiar enough with the early grammarians to know when the terms _lene_ and _aspirate_ were first used. They were the Latin equivalents to the Greek words [Greek: psilon] (_psilon_) and [Greek: dasu] (_dasy_) respectively. The Greek terms are preferable. _They_ convey no determinate idea, whereas the Latin terms convey a false one. The origin of the word aspirate I imagine to be as follows. The Latin language, wanting both the sound of the Greek _theta_, and the sign to express it (_[theta]_) rendered it by _th_. This orthography engenders the false notion that _[theta]_ differed from _[tau]_ by the addition of the aspirate _h_. To guard against similar false notions, I rarely hereafter use the word aspirate without qualifying it by the addition of the adjective _so-called_.
All the so-called aspirates are continuous; and, with the exception of _s_ and _z_, all the lenes are explosive.
I believe that in the fact of each mute appearing in a fourfold form (_i.e._ sharp, or flat, lene, or (so-called) aspirate), lies the essential character of the mutes as opposed to the liquids.
_Y_ and _w_.--These sounds, respectively intermediate to _[gamma]_ and _i_ (the _ee_ in _feet_), and to _[upsilon]_ and _u_ (_oo_ in _book_), form a transition from the vowels to the consonants.
-- 204. It has been seen that the sixteen mutes are reducible to four series. Of these series, _p_, _t_, _k_, _s_, may respectively be taken as the types. Of the liquids it may be predicated as follows:--
1. That _m_ is allied to the series _p_.--The combination _inp_ has a tendency to become _imp_.
2. That _n_ is allied to the series _t_.--The combination _imt_ has a tendency to become either _impt_, or _int_.
3. That _l_ is allied to the series _k_.--The evidence of this lies deep in comparative philology.
4. That _r_ is allied to the series _s_.--The evidence of this is of the same nature with that of the preceding a.s.sertion.
The series _p_ and _k_ have this peculiarity.--They are connected with the vowels through _w_ and _u_ (_oo_), and through _y_ and _i_ (_ee_) respectively.
-- 205. The French word _roi_ and the English words _oil_, {148} _house_, are specimens of a fresh cla.s.s of articulations; _viz._, of compound vowel sounds or _diphthongs_. The diphthong _oi_ is the vowel _o_ modified, plus the _semi_vowel _y_ (not the _vowel_ _i_) modified. The diphthongal sound in _roi_ is the vowel _o_ modified, _plus_ the semivowel _w_ (not the vowel _u_ or _oo_) modified. In _roi_ the semivowel element precedes, in _oil_ it follows. In _roi_ it is the semivowel allied to series _p_; in _oil_ it is the semivowel allied to series _k_. _The nature of the modification that the component parts of a diphthong undergo has yet to be determined_; although it is certain there is one. If it were not so, the articulations would be _double_, not _compound_.
The words quoted indicate the nature of the diphthongal system.
1. Diphthongs with the semivowel _w_, _a_) _preceding_, as in the French word _roi_, _b_) _following_, as in the English word _new_.
2. Diphthongs with the semivowel _y_, _a_) _preceding_, as is common in the languages of the Lithuanic and Slavonic stocks, _b_) _following_, as in the word _oil_.
3. Triphthongs with a semivowel both _preceding_ and _following_.
The diphthongs in English are four; _ow_ as in _house_, _ew_ as in _new_, _oi_ as in _oil_, _i_ as in _bite_, _fight_.
-- 206. _Chest_, _jest_.--Here we have compound consonantal sounds. The _ch_ in _chest_ is _t_ + _sh_ ([sigma]), the _j_ in _jest_ is _d_ + _zh_ ([zeta]). I believe that in these combinations one or both the elements, _viz._, _t_ and _sh_, _d_ and _zh_, are modified; but I am unable to state the exact nature of this modification.
-- 207. _Ng._--The sound of the _ng_ in _sing_, _king_, _throng_, when at the end of a word, or of _singer_, _ringing_, &c. in the middle of a word, is not the natural sound of the combination _n_ and _g_, each letter retaining its natural power and sound; but a simple single sound, of which the combination _ng_ is a conventional mode of expressing.
-- 208. Other terms, chiefly relating to the vowels, have still to be explained. The _e_ of the French has been called _ferme_, or _close_ (Italian, _chiuso_). Its opposite, the _a_ in _fate_, is _open_.
Compared with _a_ in _fate_, and the _o_ in _note_, _a_ in _father_, {149} and the _aw_ in _bawl_, are _broad_, the vowels of _note_ and _fate_ being _slender_.
-- 209. In _fat_, the vowel is, according to common parlance, _short_; in _fate_, it is _long_. Here we have the introduction of two fresh terms. For the words _long_ and _short_, I would fain subst.i.tute _independent_ and _dependent_. If from the word _fate_ I separate the final consonantal sound, the syllable, _fa_ remains. In this syllable the _a_ has precisely the sound that it had before. It remains unaltered. The removal of the consonant has in nowise modified its sound or power. It is not so with the vowel in the word _fat_. If from this I remove the consonant following, and so leave the _a_ at the end of the syllable, instead of in the middle, I must do one of two things: I must sound it either as the _a_ in _fate_, or else as the _a_ in _father_. Its (so-called) short sound it cannot retain, unless it be supported by a consonant following. For this reason it is _dependent_. The same is the case with all the so-called short sounds, _viz._, the _e_ in _bed_, _i_ in _fit_, _u_ in _bull_, _o_ in _not_, _u_ in _but_.
To the preceding remarks the following statements may be added.
1. That the words _independent_ and _dependent_ correspond with the terms _perfect_ and _imperfect_ of the Hebrew grammarians.
2. That the Hebrew grammars give us the truest notions respecting these particular properties of vowels.
The following sentences are copied from Lee"s Hebrew Grammar, Art. 33, 34:--"By _perfect vowels_ is meant, vowels which, being preceded by a consonant" (_or without being so preceded_), "will const.i.tute a complete syllable, as [Hebrew: BA] _b[=a]_. By _imperfect vowels_ is meant those vowels which are not generally" (_never_) "found to const.i.tute syllables without either the addition of a consonant or of an accent. Such syllables, therefore, must be either like [Hebrew: BDA] _bad_, or [Hebrew: BA]
_b[=a]_, _i.e._, followed by a consonant, or accompanied by an accent." For further remarks on this subject, see the chapter on accent.
-- 210. Before _i_, _e_, and _y_ of the English alphabet, and before _u_ and _o_ German, the letters _c_ and _g_ have the tendency to a.s.sume the sound and power of _s_ or _z_, of _sh_ or _zh_, of _ch_ or _j_; {150} in other words, of becoming either _s_ or some sound allied to _s_. Compared with _a_, _o_, and _u_ (as in _gat_, _got_, _gun_), which are _full_, _i_, _e_, _y_, are _small_ vowels.
It not every vowel that is susceptible of every modification. _I_ (_ee_) and _u_ (_oo_) are incapable of becoming broad. _E_ in _bed_ (as I have convinced myself), although both broad and slender, is incapable of becoming independent. For the _u_ in _but_, and for the _o_ of certain foreign languages, I have no satisfactory systematic position.
-- 211. _Vowel System._
_Broad._ | _Slender._ | | _Independent._ |_Independent._ | _Dependent._ | | _a_, in _father_ |_a_, in _fate_ |_a_, in _fat_.