The changes in Welsh, cla.s.sified according to the relationship of the sounds are--
1. From the sharp lenes to the corresponding flats; as _p_ to _b_, _t_ to _d_, _c_ to _g_. The changes in Irish are the same.
2. From the flat lenes to their corresponding so-called aspirates; as _b_ to _v_, _d_ to __. This is the change in Welsh. In Irish we have the same, but only as far as _b_ is concerned; the aspirate of _d_ (__) being wanting in that language. In neither Welsh nor Irish occurs the true aspirate of _g_. In neither Welsh nor Irish occurs the true aspirate of _c_; which, being wanting, is replaced by the sound of the _ch_ in the German _auch_, here spelt _c_.
Now the Welsh grammarians deal with the changes from sharp to flat, and from lene to aspirate, alike; since, in respect to the grammar of their language, they are enabled to state that they take place under the same circ.u.mstances. {80} Taken collectively they are called light: and words wherein _p_ is changed to _b_, and those wherein _b_ is changed to _v_, are equally said to a.s.sume the light sound. This the Welsh express in spelling, and write _ben_ for _pen_, and _vraint_ for _braint_, &c. In Irish the arrangement is different. When a so-called aspirate is subst.i.tuted for a lene, the word is said to take an aspiration, and _bheul_ is written _beul_. If, however, the sharp be made flat, the original sound is said to be eclipsed. In spelling, however, it is preserved; so that _teine_, with the _t_ changed, is written _dteine_, and p.r.o.nounced _deine_. With this view we can now ask how far the change from _p_ to _b_, _t_ to _d_, _c_ to _g_, _b_ to _v_, _c_ to _c_, takes place in Irish and Welsh under similar circ.u.mstances.
In _Welsh_--after all verbs, except those of the infinitive mood; as _caravi gaer_ (for _caer_)=_I love a fort_.
In _Irish_--after all verbs, provided that the substantive be masculine; as _ta me ag gearrad crainn_=_I am cutting (at to cut) a tree_. Here _crainn_ comes from _crainn_. This change in Irish extends only to the change from lene to aspirate.
In _Welsh_--after the possessive p.r.o.nouns _thy_, _thine_, _his_, _its_, _mine_ (but not _my_); as _dy var_ (for _bar_)=_thy wrath_; _ei vraint_ (from _braint_)=_his privilege_. _N. B._ Although the same word (_ei_) means _her_, _his_, and _its_, it induces the light change only when it is either masculine or neuter.
In _Irish_--after the possessive p.r.o.nouns _my_, _thy_, and _his_. Here the change is of the first sort only, or an aspiration; as _mo vas_ (_bas_)=_my death_; _do cos_ (_cos_)=_thy foot_; _ceann_ (_ceann_)=_his head_. _N. B._ Although the same word (_a_) means _her_, _his_, and _its_, it induces the aspirate only when it is either masculine or neuter.
In _Welsh_--the initials of adjectives become light when their substantive is feminine.
In _Irish_--the initials of adjectives singular, aspirated in the oblique cases only of the masculine, are aspirated throughout in the feminine.
In _Welsh_--after certain adverbs called formative, used like the English words _to_, _as_, &c., in the formation of the degrees of nouns, and the moods of verbs (in other words, {81} after certain particles), initial sounds become light; as _rhy vycan_ (_bycan_)=_very_ (_over_) _little_; _ni carav_ (_carav_)=_I do not love_.
In _Irish_--the same, in respect to the change from lene to aspirate; _ro veag_=_very little_; _ni vualim_ (_bualim_)=_I do not beat_; _do vuaileas_=_I struck_, &c.
In _Welsh_--initials are light after all prepositions except _in_ and _towards_.
In _Irish_--the prepositions either eclipse the noun that they govern or else aspirate it. A Welsh grammarian would say that it made them light.
In _Welsh_--initials of feminines become light after the Articles.
In _Irish_--masculines are aspirated in the genitive and dative singular; feminines in the nominative and dative. _N.B._ The difference here is less than it appears to be. The masculine dative is changed, not as a masculine, but by the effect of the particle _do_, the sign of the dative; the genitive, perhaps, is changed _ob differentiam_. This being the fact, the nominative is the only case that is changed _as such_. Now this is done with the feminines only. The inflection explains this.
_Masc._ _Fem._
_Nom._ an crann=_the tree_. _Nom._ an cos=_the foot_.
_Gen._ an crainn. _Gen._ an cos.
_Dat._ don crann. _Dat._ don cos.
_Acc._ an crainn. _Acc._ an cos.
Such the changes from sharp to flat, and from lene to aspirate. The second order of changes is remarkable, _viz._ from the mutes to their corresponding liquids, and, in the case of series _k_, to _ng_. This, in Welsh, is as follows:--
_Sharp._ _Flat._
_p_ to [19]_m=h_. _b_ to _m_.
_t_ to [19]_n=h_. _d_ to _n_.
_k_ to _ng=h_. _g_ to _ng_.
_e.g._, _nheyrnas_ for _teyrnas_, _ngher_ for _cer_, _nuw_ for _duw_, &c.
{82}
In Irish the combinations _m_ + _h_, _n_ + _h_, _ng_ + _h_ are wanting: _t_, however, under certain conditions, becomes _h_, as _mo high_ (_tigh_)=_my house_. With the unaspirated liquids the change, however, coincides with that of the Welsh--_ar maile_ (spelt _mbaile_)=_our town_; _ar nia_ (spelt _ndia_)=_our G.o.d_; _ar ngearran_=_our complaint_. These words come respectively from _baile_, _dia_, _gearran_. To show that this change takes place in Irish and Welsh under similar circ.u.mstances is more than can be expected; since __ being wanting in Irish, leaves _d_ to be changed into _n_.
_Inflections formed by changes in the middle of words_.
_Plurals from Singulars_.
_Welsh._ _Irish._
_Singular._ _Plural._ _Singular._ _Plural._
Aber = _a conflux_; ebyr. Ball = _a spot_; baill.
Bar = _a bard_; beir. Cnoc = _a hill_; cnoic.
Bran = _a crow_; brain. Poll = _a pit_; poil.
Fon = _a staff_; fyn Fonn = _a tune_; foinn.
Maen = _a stone_; mein. Crann = _a tree_; crainn.
Gur = _a man_; guyr. Fear = _a man_; fir.
&c. &c.
_Inflections formed by addition._
_Plural forms._--When not expressed by a change of vowel, _-d_ (or an allied sound) both in Welsh and Irish has a plural power; as _merc_, _merced_; _hy_, _hyo_; _teyrn_, _teyrne_=_girls_, _stags_, _kings_; Welsh:--_gealac_, _gealacad_; _sgolog_, _sgolagad_; _uiseog_, _uiseogad_=_moons_, _farmers_, _larks_; Irish. In each language there are plural forms in _-d_.
Also in _-n_, as _dyn_=_a person_, _dynion_=_persons_. In Irish there is the form _cu_=_a greyhound_; Plural _cuin_. It may be doubted, however, whether _-n_ is not ejected in the singular rather than added in the plural.
Also in _-au_, Welsh (as _pen-au_=_heads_), and in _-a_, Irish (as _cos-a_=_feet_).
In each language there is, in respect to both case and {83} gender, an equal paucity of inflections. The Irish, however, preserves the Indo-European dative plural in _b_; as _cos-aiv_=ped-_ibus_.
The ordinals in Welsh are expressed by _-ved_; as _sai_=_seven_, _seived_=_seventh_. The ordinals in Irish are expressed by _-vad_, as _seact_=_seven_, _seact-vad_=_seventh_ (spelt _seachmhadh_).
The terminations _-n_ and _-g_ are diminutive in Welsh; as _dyn-yn_=_mannikin_, _oen-ig_=_lambkin_. They have the same power in Irish; as _cnoc-an_=_a hillock_; _duil-eog_=_a leaflet_. In Irish, currently spoken, there is no inflection for the comparative degrees;--there is, however, an obsolete form in _-d_, as _gla.s.s_, _glaiside_=_green_, _greener_. In Welsh the true comparative ends in _c_, as _main_=_slender_, _mainac_=_more slender_. A form, however, exists in _-ed_, meaning equality, and so implying comparison, _viz._, _mein-ed_=_so slender_.
As expressive of an agent, the termination _-r_ is common to both languages. Welsh, _mor-ur_=_a seaman_; _telynaur_=_a harpist_; Irish, _sealg-aire_=_a hunter_; _figead-oir_=_a weaver_.
As expressive of "abounding in," the termination _-c_ (or _-g_) is common in both languages. Welsh, _boliuag_=_abounding in belly_; _toirteac_=_abounding in fruit_. In each language a sound of series _t_, is equivalent to the English _-ly_. Welsh, _mab-ai_=_boy-like_. Irish, _duin-eata_=_manly_.
Of the personal terminations it may be said, that those of both the Irish and Welsh are those of the other European tongues, and that they coincide and differ in the same way with those of the Gothic stock: the form in _m_ being the one more constant. For the theory of the personal terminations, the reader is referred to the Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations, by Dr.
Prichard.
The present notices being indicative of grammatical affinities only, the glossarial points of likeness between the Welsh and Irish are omitted.
-- 137. The Celtic tongues have lately received especial ill.u.s.tration from the researches of Mr. Garnett. Amongst other, the two following points are particularly investigated by him:-- {84}
1. The affinities of the ancient language of Gaul.
2. The affinities of the Pictish language or dialect.
-- 138. _The ancient language of Gaul Cambrian._--The evidence in favour of the ancient language of Gaul being Cambrian rather than Gaelic, lies in the following facts:--