Bentham was, of course, disgusted by the divergence of his clients from the lines chalked out by proper respect for law and order. On 31st October 1793 he writes to a friend, expressing his wish that Jacobinism could be extirpated; no price could be too heavy to pay for such a result: but he doubts whether war or peace would be the best means to the end, and protests against the policy of appropriating useless and expensive colonies instead of "driving at the heart of the monster."[265] Never was an adviser more at cross-purposes with the advised. It would be impossible to draw a more striking portrait of the abstract reasoner, whose calculations as to human motives omit all reference to pa.s.sion, and who fancied that all prejudice can be dispelled by a few bits of logic.
Meanwhile a variety of suggestions more or less important and connected with pa.s.sing events were seething in his fertile brain. He wrote one of his most stinging pamphlets, "_Truth versus Ashhurst_" in December 1792, directed against a judge who, in the panic suggested by the September ma.s.sacres, had eulogised the English laws. Bentham"s aversion to Jacobin measures by no means softened his antipathy to English superst.i.tions; and his attack was so sharp that Romilly advised and obtained its suppression for the time. Projects as to war-taxes suggested a couple of interesting pamphlets written in 1793, and published in 1795. In connection with this, schemes suggested themselves to him for improved systems of patents, for limited liability companies and other plans.[266] His great work still occupied him at intervals. In 1793 he offers to Dundas to employ himself in drafting Statutes, and remarks incidentally that he could legislate for Hindostan, should legislation be wanted there, as easily as for his own parish.[267] In 1794, Dumont is begging him to "conquer his repugnance" to bestowing a few hints upon his interpreter.[268] In 1796, Bentham writes long letters suggesting that he should be sent to France with Wilberforce, in order to re-establish friendly relations.[269] In 1798 he is corresponding at great length with Patrick Colquhoun upon plans for improving the Metropolitan police.[270] In 1801 he says[271] that for two years and a half "he has thought of scarce anything else" than a plan for interest-bearing notes, which he carefully elaborated and discussed with Nicholas Vansittart and Dr. Beeke. In September 1800, however, he had found time to occupy himself with a proposed _frigidarium_ or ice-house for the preservation of fish, fruits, and vegetables; and invited Dr.
Roget, a nephew of Romilly, to come to his house and carry out the necessary experiments.[272] In January 1802 he writes to Dumont[273]
proposing to send him a trifling specimen of the Panopticon, a set of hollow fire-irons invented by his brother, which may attract the attention of Buonaparte and Talleyrand. He proceeds to expound the merits of Samuel"s invention for making wheels by machinery. Dumont replies, that fire-irons are "superfluities"--(fire-arms might have been more to Buonaparte"s taste)--and that the Panopticon itself was coldly received.
This Panopticon was to be Bentham"s masterpiece. It occupied his chief attention from his return to England until the peace of Amiens. His brother had returned from Russia in 1791. Their father died 28th March 1792, dividing his property equally between his sons. Jeremy"s share consisted of the estate at Queen"s Square Place, Westminster, and of landed property producing 500 or 600 a year. The father, spite of the distance between them, had treated his son with substantial kindness, and had learned to take a pride in achievements very unlike those which he had at first desired.[274] Bentham"s position, however, was improved by the father"s death. The Westminster estate included the house in which he lived for the rest of his life. There was a garden in which he took great delight, though London smoke gradually destroyed the plants: and in the garden was the small house where Milton had once lived.[275]
Here, with the co-operation of his brother and his increased income, he had all the means necessary for launching his grand scheme.
The Panopticon, as defined by its inventor to Brissot, was a "mill for grinding rogues honest, and idle men industrious."[276] It was suggested by a plan designed by his brother in Russia for a large house to be occupied by workmen, and to be so arranged that they could be under constant inspection. Bentham was working on the old lines of philanthropic reform. He had long been interested in the schemes of prison reform, to which Howard"s labours had given the impetus.
Blackstone, with the help of William Eden, afterwards Lord Auckland, had prepared the "Hard Labour Bill," which Bentham had carefully criticised in 1778. The measure was pa.s.sed in 1779, and provided for the management of convicts, who were becoming troublesome, as transportation to America had ceased to be possible. Howard, whose relation to Bentham I have already noticed, was appointed as one of the commissioners to carry out the provisions of the Act. The commissioners disagreed; Howard resigned; and though at last an architect (William Blackburn) was appointed who possessed Howard"s confidence, and who constructed various prisons in the country, the scheme was allowed to drop. Bentham now hoped to solve the problem with his Panopticon. He printed an account of it in 1791. He wrote to his old antagonist, George III., describing it, together with another invention of Samuel"s for enabling armies to cross rivers, which might be more to his Majesty"s taste.[277] In March 1792 he made a proposal to the government offering to undertake the charge of a thousand convicts upon the Panopticon system.[278] After delays suspicious in the eyes of Bentham, but hardly surprising at such a period, an act of parliament was obtained in 1794 to adopt his schemes.
Bentham had already been making preparations. He says[279] (14th September 1794) that he has already spent 6000, and is spending at the rate of 2000 a year, while his income was under 600 a year. He obtained, however, 2000 from the government. He had made models and architectural plans, in which he was helped by Reveley, already known to him at Constantinople. This sum, it appears, was required in order to keep together the men whom he employed. The nature of their employment is remarkable.[280] Samuel, a man of singular mechanical skill, which was of great use to the navy during the war, had devised machinery for work in wood and metal. Bentham had joined his brother, and they were looking out for a steam-engine. It had now occurred to them to employ convicts instead of steam, and thus to combine philanthropy with business. Difficulties of the usual kind arose as to the procurement of a suitable site. The site secured under the provisions of the "Hard Labour Bill" was for some reason rejected; and Bentham was almost in despair. It was not until 1799 that he at last acquired for 12,000 an estate at Millbank, which seemed to be suitable. Meanwhile Bentham had found another application for his principle. The growth of pauperism was alarming statesmen. Whitbread proposed in February 1796 to fix a minimum rate of wages. The wisest thing that government could do, he said, was to "offer a liberal premium for the encouragement of large families."
Pitt proceeded to prepare the abortive Poor-law Bill,[281] upon which Bentham (in February 1797) sent in some very shrewd criticisms. They were not published, but are said to have "powerfully contributed to the abandonment of the measure."[282] They show Bentham"s power of incisive criticism, though they scarcely deal with the general principle. In the following autumn Bentham contributed to Arthur Young"s _Annals of Agriculture_ upon the same topic. It had struck him that an application of his Panopticon would give the required panacea. He worked out details with his usual zeal, and the scheme attracted notice among the philanthropists of the time. It was to be a "succedaneum" to Pitt"s proposal. Meanwhile the finance committee, appointed in 1797, heard evidence from Bentham"s friend, Patrick Colquhoun, upon the Panopticon, and a report recommending it was proposed by R. Pole Carew, a friend of Samuel Bentham. Although this report was suppressed, the scheme apparently received an impetus. The Millbank estate was bought in consequence of these proceedings, and a sum of only 1000 was wanted to buy out the tenant of one piece of land. Bentham was constantly in attendance at a public office, expecting a final warrant for the money.
It never came, and, as Bentham believed, the delay was due to the malice of George III. Had any other king been on the throne, Panopticon in both "the prisoner branch and the pauper branch" would have been set at work.[283] Such are the consequences of newspaper controversies with monarchs! After this, in any case, the poor Panopticon, as the old lawyers said, "languishing did live," and at last "languishing did die."
Poor Bentham seems to have struggled vainly for a time. He appealed to Pitt"s friend, Wilberforce; he appealed to his step-brother Abbot; he wrote to members of parliament, but all was in vain.
Romilly induced him in 1802 to suppress a statement of his grievances which could only have rendered ministers implacable.[284] But he found out what would hardly have been a discovery to most people, that officials can be dilatory and evasive; and certain discoveries about the treatment of convicts in New South Wales convinced him that they could even defy the laws and the Const.i.tution when they were beyond inspection. He published (1803) a _Plea for the Const.i.tution_, showing the enormities committed in the colony, "in breach of Magna Charta, the Pet.i.tion of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act, and the Bill of Rights."
Romilly in vain told him that the attorney-general could not recommend the author of such an effusion to be keeper of a Panopticon.[285] The actual end did not come till 1811. A committee then reported against the scheme. They noticed one essential and very characteristic weakness. The whole system turned upon the profit to be made from the criminals"
labour by Bentham and his brother. The committee observed that, however unimpeachable might be the characters of the founders, the scheme might lead to abuses in the hands of their successors. The adoption of this principle of "farming" had in fact led to gross abuses both in gaols and in workhouses; but it was, as I have said, in harmony with the whole "individualist" theory. The committee recommended a different plan; and the result was the foundation of Millbank penitentiary, opened in 1816.[286] Bentham ultimately received 23,000 by way of compensation in 1813.[287] The objections of the committee would now be a commonplace, but Bentham saw in them another proof of the desire to increase government patronage. He was well out of the plan. There were probably few men in England less capable of managing a thousand convicts, in spite of his theories about "springs of action." If anything else had been required to ensure failure, it would have been a.s.sociation with a sanguine inventor of brilliant abilities.
Bentham"s agitation had not been altogether fruitless. His plan had been partly adopted at Edinburgh by one of the Adams,[288] and his work formed an important stage in the development of the penal system.
Bentham, though he could not see that his failure was a blessing in disguise, had learned one lesson worth learning. He was ill-treated, according to impartial observers. "Never," says Wilberforce,[289] "was any one worse used. I have seen the tears run down the cheeks of that strong-minded man through vexation at the pressing importunity of his creditors, and the indolence of official underlings when day after day he was begging at the Treasury for what was indeed a mere matter of right." Wilberforce adds that Bentham was "quite soured," and attributes his later opinions to this cause. When the _Quarterly Review_ long afterwards taunted him as a disappointed man, Bentham declared himself to be in "a state of perpetual and unruffled gaiety," and the "mainspring" of the gaiety of his own circle.[290] No one, indeed, could be less "soured" so far as his habitual temper was concerned. But Wilberforce"s remark contained a serious truth. Bentham had made a discovery. He had vowed war in his youth against the "demon of chicane."
He had now learned that the name of the demon was "Legion." To cast him out, it would be necessary to cast out the demon of officialism; and we shall see what this bit of knowledge presently implied.
NOTES:
[260] _Works_, x. 195.
[261] _Ibid._ x. 198-99.
[262] _Ibid._ x. 317.
[263] _Ibid._ x. 270.
[264] _Works_, x. 282.
[265] _Works_, x. 296.
[266] _Ibid._ x. 304.
[267] _Ibid._ x. 292.
[268] _Ibid._ x. 300.
[269] _Works_, x. 315.
[270] _Ibid._ x. 329.
[271] _Ibid._ x. 366.
[272] _Ibid._ x. 346.
[273] _Ibid._ x. 381.
[274] See his letter to Lansdowne, sending a portrait to Jeremy.--_Works_, x. 224.
[275] _Works_, xi. 81.
[276] _Ibid._ x. 226.
[277] _Works_, x. 260. It is doubtful whether the letter was sent.
[278] The Panopticon story is confusedly told in Bowring"s life. The _Panopticon Correspondence_, in the eleventh volume, gives fragments from a "history of the war between Jeremy Bentham and George III.,"
written by Bentham in 1830-31, and selections from a voluminous correspondence.
[279] _Works_, x. 301.
[280] _Ibid._ xi. 167.
[281] The plan, according to Bentham (_Works_, xi. 102), was suggested by Ruggles, author of the work upon the poor-laws, first printed in Young"s _Annals_.
[282] _Works_, viii. 440.
[283] _Works_, xi. 102-3.
[284] _Ibid._ x. 400.
[285] _Works_, xi. 144.
[286] For its later history see _Memorials of Millbank_, by Arthur Griffiths. 2 vols., 1875.
[287] _Works_, xi. 106.
[288] _Ibid._ x. 294.
[289] Wilberforce"s _Life_, ii. 71.
[290] _Works_, x. 541.
IV. THE UTILITARIAN PROPAGANDA
Bentham in 1802 had reached the respectable age of fifty-four. He had published his first work twenty-six years, and his most elaborate treatise thirteen years, previously. He had been brought into contact with many of the eminent politicians and philanthropists of the day.
Lansdowne had been a friendly patron: his advice had been treated with respect by Pitt, Dundas, and even by Blackstone; he was on friendly terms with Colquhoun, Sir F. Eden, Arthur Young, Wilberforce, and others interested in philanthropic movements, and his name at least was known to some French politicians. But his reputation was still obscure; and his connections did not develop into intimacies. He lived as a recluse and avoided society. His introduction to great people at Bowood had apparently rather increased than softened his shyness. The little circle of intimates, Romilly and Wilson and his own brother, must have satisfied his needs for social intercourse. It required an elaborate negotiation to bring about a meeting between him and Dr. Parr, the great Whig prophet, although they had been previously acquainted, and Parr was, as Romilly said by way of introduction, a profound admirer and universal panegyrist.[291] He refused to be introduced by Parr to Fox, because he had "nothing particular to say" to the statesman, and considered that to be "always a sufficient reason for declining acquaintance."[292]
But, at last, Bentham"s fame was to take a start. Bentham, I said, had long before found himself. Dumont had now found Bentham. After long and tedious labours and multiplied communications between the master and the disciple, Dumont in the spring of 1802 brought out his _Traites de Legislation de M. Jeremie Bentham_. The book was partly a translation from Bentham"s published and unpublished works,[293] and partly a statement of the pith of the new doctrine in Dumont"s own language. It had the great merit of putting Bentham"s meaning vigorously and compactly, and free from many of the digressions, minute discussions of minor points and arguments requiring a special knowledge of English law, which had impeded the popularity of Bentham"s previous works.
The Jacobin controversies were pa.s.sing into the background: and Bentham began to attain a hearing as a reformer upon different lines. In 1803 Dumont visited St. Petersburg, and sent home glowing reports of Bentham"s rising fame. As many copies of the _Traites_ had been sold there as in London. Codes were wanted; laws were being digested; and Bentham"s work would supply the principles and the cla.s.sification. A magnificent translation was ordered, and Russian officials wrote glowing letters in which Bentham was placed in a line with Bacon, Newton, and Adam Smith--each the founder of a new science.[294] At home the new book was one of the objects of what Dumont calls the "scandalous irreverence"
of the _Edinburgh Review_.[295] This refers to a review of the _Traites_ in the _Edinburgh Review_ of April 1804. Although patronising in tone, and ridiculing some of Bentham"s doctrines as commonplace and condemning others as criminal, it paid some high compliments to his ability. The irreverence meant at least that Bentham had become one of the persons worth talking about, and that he was henceforth to influence the rising generation. In January 1807 the _Edinburgh_ itself (probably Jeffrey) suggested that Bentham should be employed in a proposed reform of the Scottish judicial system. His old friend, Lansdowne, died on 7th May 1805, and in one of his last letters expresses a hope that Bentham"s principles are at last beginning to spread.[296] The hope was fulfilled.