[118: See H. Vincent, "Canaan d"apres l"exploration recente," Paris, 1907, p. 395.]
[119: "Les Premieres Civilizations," Paris, 1909, p. 404: Memoires de la Delegation en Perse, Tome VIII, archeol.; and Mission Scientifique au Caucase, Tome I.]
[120: W. J. Perry, "The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines," _Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society_, Vol.
60, Part I, 24th Nov., 1915.]
[121: The evidence for this is being prepared for publication by Captain Leonard Munn, R.E., who has personally collected the data in Hyderabad.]
[122: Annual Report of the Archaeological Department, Southern Circle, Madras, for the year 1915-1916. See for example Mr. A. H. Longhurst"s photographs and plans (Plates I-IV) and especially that of the old Siva temple at Kambaduru, Plate IV (b).]
[123: As I shall show in "The Birth of Aphrodite" (Chapter III).]
[124: W. J. Perry, "The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia".]
[125: "A Penitential Rite of the Ancient Mexicans," Archaeological and Ethnological Papers of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Vol. I, No. 7, 1904.]
[126: Bancroft, _op. cit._ Vol. II, pp. 682 and 683.]
[127: _Op. cit._ p. 684.]
[128: _Ibid._]
[129: See J. Wilfrid Jackson, _op. cit. supra_.]
Summary.
In these pages I have ranged over a very wide field of speculation, groping in the dim shadows of the early history of civilization. I have been attempting to pick up a few of the threads which ultimately became woven into the texture of human beliefs and aspirations, and to suggest that the practice of mummification was the woof around which the web of civilization was intimately intertwined.
I have already explained how closely that practice was related to the origin and development of architecture, which Professor Lethaby has called the "matrix of civilization," and how nearly the ideas that grew up in explanation and in justification of the ritual of embalming were affected by the practice of agriculture, the second great pillar of support for the edifice of civilization. It has also been shown how far-reaching was the influence exerted by the needs of the embalmer, which impelled men, probably for the first time in history, to plan and carry out great expeditions by sea and land to obtain the necessary resins and the balsams, the wood and the spices. Incidentally also in course of time the practice of mummification came to exert a profound effect upon the means for the acquisition of a knowledge of medicine and all the sciences ancillary to it.
But I have devoted chief attention to the bearing of the ideas which developed out of the practice and ritual of embalming upon the spirit of man. It gave shape and substance to the belief in a future life; it was perhaps the most important factor in the development of a definite conception of the G.o.ds: it laid the foundation of the ideas which subsequently were built up into a theory of the soul: in fact, it was intimately connected with the birth of all those ideals and aspirations which are now included in the conception of religious belief and ritual.
A mult.i.tude of other trains of thought were started amidst the intellectual ferment of the formulation of the earliest concrete system of biological theory. The idea of the properties and functions of water which had previously sprung up in connexion with the development of agriculture became crystallized into a more definite form as the result of the development of mummification, and this has played an obtrusive part in religion, in philosophy and in medicine ever since. Moreover its influence has become embalmed for all time in many languages and in the ritual of every religion.
But it was a factor in the development not merely of religious beliefs, temples and ritual, but it was also very closely related to the origin of much of the paraphernalia of the G.o.ds and of current popular beliefs.
The swastika and the thunderbolt, dragons and demons, totemism and the sky-world are all of them conceptions that were more or less closely connected with the matters I have been discussing.
The ideas which grew up in a.s.sociation with the practice of mummification were responsible for the development of the temple and its ritual and for a definite formulation of the conception of deities. But they were also responsible for originating a priesthood. For the resuscitation of the dead king, Osiris, and for the maintenance of his existence it was necessary for his successor, the reigning king, to perform the ritual of animation and the provision of food and drink. The king, therefore, was the first priest, and his functions were not primarily acts of worship but merely the necessary preliminaries for restoring life and consciousness to the dead seer so that he could consult him and secure his advice and help.
It was only when the number of temples became so great and their ritual so complex and elaborate as to make it a physical impossibility for the king to act in this capacity in all of them and on every occasion that he was compelled to delegate some of his priestly functions to others, either members of the royal family or high officials. In course of time certain individuals devoted themselves exclusively to these duties and became professional priests; but it is important to remember that at first it was the exclusive privilege of Horus, the reigning king, to intercede with Osiris, the dead king, on behalf of men, and that the earliest priesthood consisted of those individuals to whom he had delegated some of these duties.
In conclusion I should like to express in words what must be only too apparent to every reader of this statement. It claims to be nothing more than a contribution to the study of some of the most difficult problems in the history of human thought. For one so ill-equipped for a task of such a nature as I am to attempt it calls for a word of explanation. The clear light that recent research has shed upon the earliest literature in the world has done much to destroy the foundations upon which the theories propounded by scholars have been built up. It seemed to be worth while to attempt to read afresh the voluminous ma.s.s of old doc.u.ments with the illumination of this new information.
The other reason for making such an attempt is that almost every modern scholar who has discussed the matters at issue has a.s.sumed that the fashionable doctrine of the independent development of human beliefs and practices was a safe basis upon which to construct his theories. At best it is an unproven and reckless speculation. I am convinced it is utterly false. Holding such views I have attempted to read the evidence afresh.
APPENDIX A.
On re-reading the discussion of the significance of the _ka_ I realize that, in striving after brevity and conciseness--to keep the size of my statement within the limits of the _Bulletin of the John Rylands Library_, generously elastic though it is--I have left the argument in a rather nebulous form.
It must not be imagined that a concrete-minded people like the ancient Egyptians entertained highly abstract and ethereal ideas about "the soul". They recognized that all the expressions of consciousness and personality could cease during sleep; and at the same time the phenomena of dreams seemed to afford evidence that these absent elements of the individual"s being were enjoying real experiences elsewhere. Thus there was an _alter ego_, identified by this matter-of-fact people with the twin (placenta) which was born with the child and was clearly concerned with its physical and intellectual nourishment--for it was obviously connected by its stalk to the embryo like a tree to its roots, and it seemed to be composed of blood, which was regarded as the vehicle of mind. But this intellectual "twin" kept pace in its growth with the physical body. When a statue was made to represent the latter the _ka_ could dwell in the real body or the statue.
The identification of the placenta with the moon helped the growth of the conception that this "birth-promoter" could not only bring about a re-birth in the life to come, but also facilitate a transference to the sky-world. The placenta had already been superintending the deceased"s welfare upon earth and would continue to do so when he rejoined his _ka_ in the sky world.
The complexity of the conception is due to the fact that the simple early belief in "a double" was gradually elaborated, as one new idea after another became added to it, and rationalized to blend with the former complex in an increasingly involved synthesis. It was only when the elaborate scaffolding of material factors was cleared away that a more ethereal conception of "the soul" was sublimated.
APPENDIX B.
I should like to emphasize the fact that my protest (on p. 63) was directed against the claim that the custom of offering food and drink to the dead was inspired _primarily_ to prevent them from troubling the living. Its original purpose was to sustain and reanimate the dead; but, of course, when its real meaning was forgotten, it was explained in a great variety of ways by the people who made a practice of presenting offerings to the dead without really knowing why they did so.
Dr. Alan Gardiner himself has made a statement which casual readers (i.e., those who do not discriminate between the motive for the invention of a procedure and the reasons subsequently given for its continuance) might regard as a contradiction of my quotation from his writings on p. 62. Thus he says: "Any G.o.d could doubtless attack human beings, but savage and malicious deities, like Seth [Set], the murderer of Osiris, or Sakhmet, [Sekhet], the "lady of pestilence" (_nb-t "idw_), were doubtless most to be feared." [This att.i.tude of the malignant G.o.ddesses is revealed in a most obtrusive form in the village deities of the Dravidians of Southern India.] "The dead were specially to be feared; nor was it only those dead who were unhappy or unburied that might torment the living, for the magician sometimes warns them that their tombs are endangered" (Article "Magic (Egyptian)," _Hastings"
Encycl. Ethics and Religion_, p. 264).
But it is important to bear in mind, as the same scholar has explained elsewhere ["Life and Death (Egyptian)," _Hastings" Encycl._, p. 23]: "Nothing could be farther from the truth [than the statement that "the funerary rites and practices of the Egyptians were in the main precautionary measures serving to protect the living against the dead"]; it is of fundamental importance to realize that the vast stores of wealth and thought expended by the Egyptians on their tombs--that wealth and that thought which created not only the pyramids, but also the practice of mummification and a very extensive funerary literature--were due to the anxiety of each member of the community with regard to his own individual future welfare, and not to feelings of respect, or fear, or duty felt towards the other dead."
It was only in response to certain binding obligations that the living observed all those costly and troublesome rules which were believed to insure the welfare of the deceased. But this recognition of the primary and real purpose of the food offerings as sustenance for the dead or the G.o.ds must not be allowed to blind us to the fact that there is widespread throughout the world a real fear of the dead and ghosts, and that in many places food-offerings are made for the specific purpose "of appeasing the fairies".
Mr. Donald Mackenzie tells me that offerings of milk and porridge are made at the stone monuments in Scotland, and children carry meal in their pockets to protect themselves from the fairies. For the dead went to Fairyland.
Beliefs of a similar kind can be collected from most parts of the world: but the point I specially want to emphasize is that they are _secondary_ rationalizations of a custom which originally had an utterly different significance.
APPENDIX C.
Prof. Barton"s statement (_supra_, p. 64) is typical of a widespread misapprehension, resulting from the confusion between s.e.xual relations and the giving of life. At first primitive people did not realize that the manifestations of the s.e.x instinct had anything whatever to do with reproduction. They were aware of the fact that women gave birth to children; and the organ concerned in this process was regarded as the giver of life, the creator. The apotheosis of these powers led to the conception of the first deity. But it was only secondarily that these life-giving attributes were brought into a.s.sociation with the s.e.xual act and the masculine powers of fertilization. Much confusion has been created by those writers who see manifestations of the s.e.xual factor and phallic ideas in every aspect of primitive religion, where in most cases only the power of life-giving plays a part.
Chapter II.
DRAGONS AND RAIN G.o.dS.[130]
An adequate account of the development of the dragon-legend would represent the history of the expression of mankind"s aspirations and fears during the past fifty centuries and more. For the dragon was evolved along with civilization itself. The search for the elixir of life, to turn back the years from old age and confer the boon of immortality, has been the great driving force that compelled men to build up the material and the intellectual fabric of civilization. The dragon-legend is the history of that search which has been preserved by popular tradition: it has grown up and kept pace with the constant struggle to grasp the unattainable goal of men"s desires; and the story has been constantly growing in complexity, as new incidents were drawn within its scope and confused with old incidents whose real meaning was forgotten or distorted. It has pa.s.sed through all the phases with which the study of the spreading of rumours or the development of dreams has familiarized students of psychology. The simple original stories, which become blended and confused, their meaning distorted and reinterpreted by the rationalizing of incoherent incidents, are given the dramatic form with which the human mind invests all stories that make a strong appeal to its emotions, and then secondarily elaborated with a wealth of circ.u.mstantial detail. This is the history of popular legends and the development of rumours. But these phenomena are displayed in their most emphatic form in dreams.[131] In his waking state man restrains his roving fancies and exercises what Freud has called a "censorship" over the stream of his thoughts: but when he falls asleep, the "censor" dozes also; and free rein is given to his unrestrained fancies to make a hotch-potch of the most varied and unrelated incidents, and to create a fantastic mosaic built up from fragments of his actual experience, bound together by the cement of his aspirations and fears. The myth resembles the dream because it has developed without any consistent and effective censorship. The individual who tells one particular phase of the story may exert the controlling influence of his mind over the version he narrates: but as it is handed on from man to man and generation to generation the "censorship" also is constantly changing. This lack of unity of control implies that the development of the myth is not unlike the building-up of a dream-story. But the dragon-myth is vastly more complex than any dream, because mankind as a whole has taken a hand in the process of shaping it; and the number of centuries devoted to this work of elaboration has been far greater than the years spent by the average individual in acc.u.mulating the stuff of which most of his dreams have been made. But though the myth is enormously complex, so vast a ma.s.s of detailed evidence concerning every phase and every detail of its history has been preserved, both in the literature and the folk-lore of the world, that we are able to submit it to psychological a.n.a.lysis and determine the course of its development and the significance of every incident in its tortuous rambling.
In inst.i.tuting these comparisons between the development of myths and dreams, I should like to emphasize the fact that the interpretation of the _myth_ proposed in these pages is almost diametrically opposed to that suggested by Freud, and pushed to a _reductio ad absurdum_ by his more reckless followers, and especially by Yung.
The dragon has been described as "the most venerable symbol employed in ornamental art and the favourite and most highly decorative motif in artistic design". It has been the inspiration of much, if not most, of the world"s great literature in every age and clime, and the nucleus around which a wealth of ethical symbolism has acc.u.mulated throughout the ages. The dragon-myth represents also the earliest doctrine or systematic theory of astronomy and meteorology.
In the course of its romantic and chequered history the dragon has been identified with all of the G.o.ds and all of the demons of every religion.
But it is most intimately a.s.sociated with the earliest stratum of divinities, for it has been h.o.m.ologized with each of the members of the earliest Trinity, the Great Mother, the Water G.o.d, and the Warrior Sun G.o.d, both individually and collectively. To add to the complexities of the story, the dragon-slayer is also represented by the same deities, either individually or collectively; and the weapon with which the hero slays the dragon is also h.o.m.ologous both with him and his victim, for it is animated by him who wields it, and its powers of destruction make it a symbol of the same power of evil which it itself destroys.
Such a fantastic paradox of contradictions has supplied the materials with which the fancies of men of every race and land, and every stage of knowledge and ignorance, have been playing for all these centuries. It is not surprising, therefore, that an endless series of variations of the story has been evolved, each decked out with topical allusions and distinctive embellishments. But throughout the complex tissue of this highly embroidered fabric the essential threads of the web and woof of its foundation can be detected with surprising constancy and regularity.
Within the limits of such an account as this it is obvious that I can deal only with the main threads of the argument and leave the interesting details of the local embellishments until some other time.
The fundamental element in the dragon"s powers is the control of water.