THE SERPENT
emblematizes and expresses the sound of quadruple power in Maya and duality in Nahuatl. It was employed as an image or embodiment in a single form of the two principles of nature or the four elements. It was usually accompanied by the adjective heavenly or divine and symbolized reproduction, being the union of the masculine or heavenly and feminine or earthly principles. In this connection it should be noted that the numeral two in Nahuatl is ome, and in Maya, ca. A native mode of expressing duality, by means of two horn-like projections on the heads of allegorical personages, is exemplified in fig. 29, p. 92.
THE TREE
was the emblem of life, of hidden and visible growth which extended downward into the earth and upward into heaven and sent forth its four branches towards the cardinal points. It typified tribal life because its various parts were identified with the different members of the community and, metaphorically, the lord was spoken of as the trunk or main stem; the minor chiefs as branches and twigs; the men or va.s.sals as leaves; the maidens as flowers, and the women as fruit, etc. The name "atlapalli" was, for instance, the current Nahuatl appellation for va.s.sals.
As the conventionalized trees in the native picture-writings are usually figured with four equal branches they formed an appropriate image of the living state, and of all directions in s.p.a.ce. The "tree of life" thus formed a swastika or cross and both symbols were indissolubly linked together. The names of two trees, considered particularly sacred by the Mayas, were the ci-hom and the yax-che, a sort of ceiba which was termed "the tree of celestial life" (Landa).
THE HUMAN FACE
was an image of the duality and unity of nature. The upper half of the face symbolized heaven with its two eyes, the sun and moon. The mouth and teeth, the Nahuatl name for which=tlan-tli was h.o.m.onymous with the affix tlan=land or earth=tlalli, emblematized earth, darkness and the Below. The nose with its two nostrils emblematized inhalation and exhalation. The sanct.i.ty attached to this mystic union of two streams of breath led to the consecration of the nose by the wearing of a symbolical ornament attached to it.
THE HUMAN FORM
expressed "a complete count" and was employed as an image of the entire const.i.tution, and of the calendar system; each part of the government administration and calendar sign being identified with one of the twenty digits, four limbs, body and head of the human form.
THE QUADRUPED
usually the ocelot, or puma, was the symbol of the government of the Below and nocturnal cult of the earth as opposed to
THE BIRD OR EAGLE
which typified the upper state and diurnal cult of Heaven. Chiefs, who united dual powers in their persons, wore, as an emblem, the serpent, or a combination of ocelot-skin and feather ornaments.
THE HAND
expressed _per se_, in Maya, the numeral ho=five, which was also the name of a state which invariably consisted of the central capital and four provinces. As such it was carried as an emblem of power by the central ruler, as may be seen in the native codices. The thumb being regarded as the princ.i.p.al or ruling finger, the chief lord was metaphorically spoken of as the thumb, whilst the minor lords were ent.i.tled fingers=pilli.
THE PYRAMID AND SACRED MOUNTAIN
was primarily an artificial elevation destined to be a place of refuge in times of inundation; the pyramid ultimately symbolized: (1) the sacred stable centre of the world and the Four Quarters; (2) central power and its four manifestations or elements. The great pyramid of the ancient City of Mexico which was crowned by two chapels, respectively containing symbolical images of the two principles of nature, is a striking ill.u.s.tration of the employment of the pyramid to express the dual centre (the Above and Below, etc.) and the quadruple organization of all things which was expressed not only by the four sides of the structure but by its four superposed terraces. The fact recorded by Friar Duran, that the flight of steps which led to the summit of the pyramid on its eastern side consisted of 365 steps, and that the annual ceremony of ascending these, performed by a consecrated individual, "signified the course of the sun in a year," indicates that the pyramid was also a.s.sociated with the idea of the quadruplicate division of time which pervaded the entire calendar system.
It should also be borne in mind that in ancient Mexico the summits of high mountains were regarded as sacred, "because it was there that Heaven and Earth met and generated fructifying showers." As religious cult developed, the rites performed on the summit of the pyramid or artificial mound were for the purpose of evoking rain and the renewal of life upon earth, and symbolized the union of heaven and earth. To the native mind the pyramid thus represented the consecrated meeting-place of heaven and earth, the Above and Below, the masculine and feminine elements, the "divine twins,"
as well as universal, all-pervading, quadruplicate organization. The ma.s.sive pyramid likewise typified, in an impressive manner, the main idea connected with the Middle: that of stability, immutability, quietude and repose, combined with power.
In some localities a remarkable rock or ma.s.sive block of stone was adopted as the mark of the sacred centre and became the altar on which offerings or sacrifices were made, or the throne on which the terrestrial central ruler seated himself on ceremonial occasions and a.s.sumed an att.i.tude of absolute repose. It is interesting to collate the Nahuatl words Te-otl, divinity or divine lord, with te-tl=stone and the Maya te-m=stone seat or altar, of which many carved examples exist in the ruined Central American cities, and to observe that princ.i.p.al personages, such as are represented on the carved altars and in the middle of the Copan swastika, are represented as seated cross-legged, as though this att.i.tude were specially indicative of repose on the stable centre of the four quarters. As the natives usually squat or sit on their heels, the cross-legged att.i.tude is particularly noteworthy in connection with the omnipresent set of ideas.
THE BOWL OR VASE
was the emblem of earth, the receptacle of fructifying showers, and of the terrestrial centre. Filled with rain-water, on the surface of which the radiance of a star-the pole-star-reflected itself, the bowl was supposed to typify the union of heaven and earth by means of the divine essence of light and life, proceeding from the "Heart of Heaven."
THE FLOWER
was another symbol of the earth and of the state and its divisions. It occurs as a composite flower consisting of a yellow centre surrounded by multicolored petals. The usual form is of a flower with four equal petals, bearing a circle or dot in the centre and one on each petal, the Middle and Four Quarters being thus expressed.
A closing allusion should be briefly made to the native a.s.sociation of the square with the earth and the circle with the heaven and to the influence exerted by these ideas combined with those of light and darkness upon primitive architecture and symbolical ornamental designs.
Pointing out that all of the above symbols are but variations on the fundamental theme of the "Middle, Four Quarters, Above and Below," I also emphasize the fact that, in ancient America, language powerfully influenced the choice of symbols, as may be particularly seen in the case of the serpent, the Nahuatl and Maya names for which are h.o.m.onymous with duality and quadruplicity.
The origin and meaning of the ancient American symbols of the cross, the serpent, the tree, etc., are clearly apparent. It remains to be seen how far this is the case in other countries where the identical symbols were or are employed, and it is to my fellow archaeologists that I look for final authoritative statements on this important subject, in their special lines of research.
Meanwhile I shall present some facts which are accessible to the general reader and suffice for the purpose of my present investigation.
CHINA.
Pole-star worship and determination of time by Ursa Major existed in China from remote antiquity. The Chinese name for the pole-star is Teen-hw.a.n.g-ta-tee, literally the great imperial ruler of the Heaven. In China "the pole-star, round which the entire firmament appears to turn, ought to be considered as the Sovereign of the Heavens, and as the most venerated divinity" (G. Schlegel, Uranographie Chinoise, p. 524). The sacred central forbidden enclosure, at Peking, contains a temple of the North Star G.o.d. In the description of the imperial worship held at the winter and summer solstices, in James Edkins" Religion in China (London, 1878, p. 24) it is stated: "On the second terrace of the east side, the tablet of the Sun is placed, and also that of _the Great Bear_, the five of the 28 constellations and one for all the other stars." The following pa.s.sage shows the origin of the Chinese year:
1. "The months and seasons are determined by the revolution of Ursa Major (the Chinese name for which is Pek-tao the "Seven Directors"). The tail of the constellation pointing to the east at nightfall announces the arrival of spring; pointing to the south the arrival of summer; pointing to the west the arrival of autumn and pointing to the north the arrival of winter. This means of calculating the seasons becomes more intelligible when it is remembered that in ancient times the Bear was much nearer the north pole than now and revolved around it like the hand of a clock"
(Prof. Rob. K. Dougla.s.s, China. London, 1887, p. 418). The Chinese zodiac is represented with the pole-star and circ.u.mpolar constellations in the centre (Astronomy of the Chinese, Ancient China, W. H. Medhurst, Shanghae, 1846).
2. The determination and designation of six directions in s.p.a.ce. In Chinese the six ho or ki designate the limits of s.p.a.ce, the zenith, nadir and four quarters (Mayer"s Manual, pp. 306, 312 and 321). "The term Liu-ho also applies to the six pairs of cyclical signs and means "Universe," that is, Heaven and Earth [being Above and Below] and the Four Quarters."(79)
The syllable ho also occurs in the following words which deserve to be collated with the Maya list: Ho=river, hu=lake. C-ho-o=master, _cf._ Maya hol=head. Ho-o=resident, _cf._ Maya ho=capital. Sho-o=tree, _cf._ Maya ci-hom=tree. Pih-sho-o=cypress. Kwo=country, _cf._ mouth, symbol for land or below. Kw=mouth, etc. Chow=name of ancient metropolis.
3. The conception of the Above and Below=duality. The zenith is naturally a.s.sociated with heaven and the nadir with earth. Heaven is father and earth is mother. Heaven is figured by a circle and earth by a square. "The marriage of Heaven and Earth produces all things." The a.s.sociation of heaven with the male and earth with the female principles is shown by (1) the injunction: "Thou shalt honor thy father as the heaven and thy mother as the earth." (2) In Pekin, the Emperor, termed "the Son of Heaven,"
inhabits the "Palace of Heaven" whilst the Empress inhabits the "Palace of Earth"s repose." The sun is male and the "Temple of the Sun" is situated to the east. The moon is female and the "Temple of the Moon" is situated to the west in the sacred enclosure at Pekin. The emblematic color of the heaven is naturally azure; of the sun, red; of the earth, yellow; and of the moon, white. It is thus evident that the cult of heaven and earth is indissolubly linked to that of the Yang and Yin, the male and the female principle, and that in China the following chains of a.s.sociation concerning duality were formed:
Zenith. Nadir.
Above. Below.
Tien=Heaven. Tec=Earth.
Father. Mother.
Yang. Yin.
Color: Azure. Yellow.
Emblem: Sun. Moon.
East=place of West, place of rising. setting.
Light. Darkness.
Day. Night.
Personification: the The Earth-Mother.
Shang-ti= Emperor=Above, The The Empress=Below?
Lord of Heaven or Universe.
Earthly The Empress? or representative: the Sombre Emperor?
Light Emperor.
An interesting addition to this dual list is the view of a modern Chinaman, that the Yang and Yin principles refer to positive and negative electricity! (Legge). A striking result of the a.s.sociation of woman with the nadir and earth is the fact that in Thibet, according to Rockhill, woman is designated as Smanba or Manba: "low creature."
THE MIDDLE AND FOUR QUARTERS.
It is well known that the Chinese designate their empire as the "Middle Kingdom." Another native name for China is "Chung-ho-a," which I find translated as "the Flower of the Middle." The empire is likewise designated as "the Four Seas"=ssu-hai and "the Four Mountains," and it was actually divided by the emperor Yaou or Yao (B.C. 2357) into four provinces converging at the capital, the central enclosure of which was considered as the centre of heaven and earth. It is extremely significant that, in this central enclosure there is a temple, consecrated to the G.o.d of the north star=The Imperial Ruler of Heaven, whereas altars only are dedicated to the sun and moon respectively. The existence in the central enclosure, or the "Carnation prohibited city," of the Temple of Earth"s Repose, reveals that the idea of stability was a.s.sociated with this terrestrial centre. The fact that the Empress and the female portion of the Imperial family resided in the "Palace of Earth"s Repose" affords an explanation of the possible origin of deforming the feet of n.o.ble women, this being a means of enforcing comparative repose upon them, in keeping with the symbolism of their surroundings.
The most striking structure in this sacred enclosure is "an artificial mound, nearly one hundred and fifty feet high, having five summits, crowned with as many temples. Its height allows the spectator to overlook the whole city, whilst, too, it is itself a conspicuous object from every direction." This sacred mound or pyramid actually marks the centre of the empire. From the surrounding walls of the sacred city four roads diverge towards the cardinal points, dividing the capital into four quarters. Each province was ruled by an official and both province and ruler seem to have been anciently designated by the term Mountain=Yo or Kan. A superior official, ent.i.tled the "President of the Four Mountains" is mentioned as the counsellor of Emperor Yaou in the Shu King. One name for mountain is yo, another is kan, a word which resembles k"an=water and kwan=earth, which forms the name of the earth mother=Kwan-yin. Without drawing any hasty conclusions, I merely note the curious fact that the t.i.tle "the President of the Four Mountains," must sometimes have been rendered as Kan and as Yo, and that a variant the name of "four seas" may well have been "four _ho_" or lakes or rivers. The t.i.tle kan, meaning mountain or eminence, and the idea of four rivers flowing from a common centre or spring, may well have developed themselves among Chinese-speaking people.
It may be an odd coincidence only that the word kan=mountain, should be so intimately connected with the numeral four in the Chinese t.i.tle; while it is a synonym for four in the Maya, it is also found employed in the honorific Maya t.i.tle Kukul-kan=the divine Kan, and as a synonym for mountain in certain names of localities in the valley of Mexico. An interesting but little known fact is that the peak of the mighty Kulkun mountain in China is designated as the "King of Mountains, the summit of the earth, the supporter of heaven and the axis which touches the pole"
(Meyer"s Conversations-Lexikon).
I should much like to know whether the name kul-kun is a variant of kul-kan, and literally signifies "divine mountain." In this case it would strangely resemble the Maya Kukulkan and the Nahuatl Cul-hua-can, the name of the fabulous recurved mountain of Aztec tradition. Feeling that I am here treading upon extremely dangerous ground I shall abandon further comparisons and conclusions to philologists and Chinese scholars and merely conclude by stating the certain facts, that in Chinese and Maya alike the syllable _ho_ seems to be a.s.sociated with the Middle; while _can_ is connected with four-fold division. I may perhaps venture to add that, in Chinese, Maya and Nahuatl alike, the particles te and ti seem closely connected with Heaven; while the Chinese kwan=earth, offers a certain resemblance to the Nahuatl affix tlan, meaning land, and kan, sometimes used for mountain.
Since the Chow Dynasty, the empire was spoken of as having five instead of four mountains, which leads to the inference that reference was thus made to the central metropolis also, the most sacred feature of which was its central artificial mountain or pyramid. It is obvious that the empire was governed from the central chief capital and from minor capitals situated in the four provinces and built on the pattern of Peking. In an extremely interesting and clever paper(80) Mr. James Wickersham has recently remarked that "the arrangement of cities after the cardinal-points plan was the rule not only in America but in China" and gives the following quotations: "Mukden, the metropolis and ancient capital of Manchuria, was a walled city like Peking. Main streets ran across the city from gate to gate, with narrow roads, called Hu-ting, intersecting them. The palace of the early Manchu sovereigns occupies the centre" (The Middle Kingdom, Williams, vol. I, pp. 192-198). The Manchurian city of Kirin is also divided into four quarters: "Two great streets cross each other at right angles, one of them running far out into the river on the west supported by piles." Peune, another large city, is similarly divided. "It consists of two main streets with the chief market [place] at their crossing. This plan is the rule in the cities of northern China; the large cities are walled and divided by cross streets emerging from the city gates at the cardinal points" (c.o.xe"s Russia, pp. 316-17). The relation of the central seat of government to its provinces is thus recorded in the Canon of Shun.(81) "In five years there was one tour of inspection (performed by the emperor) and four appearances at court of the n.o.bles. They set forth a report of their government in words. This was clearly tested by their works. They received chariots and robes according to their services."