Concepcion Arenal, the distinguished Spanish auth.o.r.ess, signals several signs of progress in her country. This lady writes:
In the schools founded by the Madrid a.s.sociation for the Education of Women, nearly five hundred girls pursue courses in pedagogics, commercial studies, modern languages, painting, etc.
This instruction, for the most part gratis, is given by professors who devote their time and strength to this n.o.ble object without receiving any remuneration,--worthy continuators of the grand work of the founder of the Madrid high-school for women, Fernando de Castro, of blessed memory, one of the most philanthropic men I ever met, who so loved mankind that his name should be known in every land. Nine hundred and eighteen girls attended the session of 1880-1881 of the school of music and declamation at Madrid, and the number has since increased.
A few years ago a school of arts and trades was founded at the capital, and women were admitted to the cla.s.ses in drawing. In 1881, one hundred and thirty availed themselves of this privilege. In 1882, one hundred and fifty-four female students were present at the inst.i.tutions (_inst.i.tutos_) for intermediate education in Spain. The coeducation of the s.e.xes, therefore, is not unknown to us. In that year Valencia, Barcelona, Gerona and Seville each counted sixteen, while the single girl at Mahon discontinued her studies on the ground that she preferred not to mingle with boys. At Malaga, the only female aspirant for the bachelor"s degree took seven prizes, and was "excellent" in all her studies. During the academic year, 1881-1882, twelve women attended lectures in the Spanish universities. The three at Madrid were all working for the doctorate, and one had pa.s.sed the necessary examinations; the two at Valladolid were occupied with medicine, while at Barcelona five were studying medicine, one law, and one pharmacy. Three of the medical students have pa.s.sed their examinations, but instead of the degrees, which are refused them, they are granted certificates which do not allow them to practice.
Our public opinion is progressing, as is evidenced by the laws, and especially by the educational reforms, which are the exclusive work of men. The council of public instruction, a consulting body holding by no means advanced ideas, was called upon a short time ago, to decide whether the university certificates conferred upon women could be converted into regular degrees, which would ent.i.tle the recipients to the enjoyment of the privileges attached to these t.i.tles. The learned council discussed, hesitated, tried to decide the question, but finally left it in a situation which was neither clear nor conclusive.
This hesitancy and vagueness are very significant; a few years ago a negative decision would have been given promptly and in the plainest terms.
Portugal is following closely upon the steps of Spain, and, in the former as in the latter country, it is in the department of education that the most marked signs of an awakening are to be found. Rodrigues de Freitas, the well-known publicist and republican statesman of Porto, says:
There is not a single intermediate school for girls in all Portugal. In 1883, the Portugese parliament took up the subject of intermediate instruction, and discussed the question in its relation to women, and the progress in this direction realized in France during the last few years. A deputy who opposed the reform, recalled the words of Jules Simon, p.r.o.nounced in a recent sitting of the council of public instruction at Paris. The philosopher remarked:
We are here a few old men, very fortunate gentlemen, in being excused from having to marry the girls you propose to bring up.
Our minister of the interior, who has charge of public instruction, followed, and declared that he was in favor of the establishment of girls" colleges. He said:
It is true that M. Jules Simon considers himself fortunate in not having to marry a girl educated in a French college; but I think I have discovered the reason for this aversion.
He is getting in his dotage, otherwise he would experience no repugnance in proposing to such a girl, provided, of course, that, along with an education, she was at the same time pretty and virtuous.
The chamber laughed. And such is the situation to-day: the minister favorable to the better instruction of women, while neither minister nor deputies make an earnest effort to bring it about.
This dark picture is relieved, however, by one or two bright touches. There are many private boarding schools where families in easy circ.u.mstances send their daughters, who learn to speak several languages, are taught a little elementary mathematics and geography, and acquire a few accomplishments. Some of the pupils of these inst.i.tutions pa.s.s with credit the examinations of the boys" lyceums or colleges. Article 72, of the law of June 14, 1880, on intermediate instruction, reads as follows: "Students of the female s.e.x, who wish to enter the State schools, or pa.s.s the examinations of said schools, come within the provisions of this law, except as regards the regulations concerning boarding scholars." That is to say, girls enjoy in the State intermediate schools the same privileges as male day scholars. Many girls have availed themselves of this opportunity and have pa.s.sed the lyceum examinations.
Crossing the Rhine into the Teutonic countries, we find less progress on the whole, than among the Latin races. Germany, however, if behind France and Italy, is far ahead of Spain and Portugal. The agitation is divided into two currents: the Leipsic and the Berlin movements. The former is the older, the General a.s.sociation of German Women having been founded in Leipsic in October, 1865. Louise Otto-Peters, the prime mover in the organization of this a.s.sociation, may be considered the originator of the German movement. A novelist of much power, whose stories all teach a lesson in socialism, she established in 1848, the year of the great revolutionary fermentation throughout Europe, the first paper which advocated the interests of women in Germany. The aims of the Leipsic and Berlin reformers were of an economic and educational nature. It was felt that the time had come when woman must have wider and better paid fields of work, and when she must be more thoroughly educated in order to be able the easier to gain her livelihood. A paper, _New Paths_ (_Neue Bahnen_), was established as the organ of the a.s.sociation. It still exists. The plan of holding annual conventions--much like those which have been in progress in America for so many years--in the chief cities of Germany was settled upon, and numerous meetings of this kind have already occurred. At these gatherings all questions pertaining to woman"s advancement are discussed, and auxiliary a.s.sociations organized. The General a.s.sociation of German Women has sent several pet.i.tions to the Reichstag, or imperial parliament, demanding various reforms and innovations. The princ.i.p.al members of the a.s.sociation are Louise Otto-Peters, the president and editor of the _Neue Bahnen_; Henriette Goldschmidt, the most effective speaker of the group; and Mrs. Winter, the treasurer, all of whom live in Leipsic; Miss Menzzer of Dresden; Lina Morgenstern, the well-known Berlin philanthropist; and Marie Calm of Ca.s.sel, perhaps the most radical of the body, whose ideas on woman suffrage are much the same as those entertained in England and the United States. In fact, an American is frequently struck by the similarity between many of the features of the General a.s.sociation of German Women, and the Woman"s Rights a.s.sociation in the United States.
The Berlin movement, which resembles that of Leipsic in everything except that it is rather more conservative, owes its origin to that distinguished philanthropist, Dr. Adolf Lette. The Lette Verein, or Lette Society, so called in honor of its founder, was organized in December, 1865, but a few months after the establishment of the Leipsic a.s.sociation. The object of the society is, as has already been said, to improve the material condition of women, especially poor women, by giving them a better education, by teaching them manual employments, by helping to establish them in business--in a word, by affording them the means to support themselves. The Lette Society has become the nucleus of similar organizations scattered all over the German empire. Its organ, the _German Woman"s Advocate_ (_Deutcher Frauenanwalt_), is a well-conducted little monthly, edited by the secretary of the society, Jenny Hirsch. Anna Schepeler-Lette, daughter of the founder, has been for many years and is still at the head of this admirable society. She writes me:
If we are asked whether we would have women enter public life, whether we would wish them to become professors in the university, clergymen in the church, and lawyers at the bar, as is the case in America, we should make no response, for they are but idle questions. These demands have not yet been made in Germany, nor will they be made for a long time to come, if ever.
But why peer into the future? We have to-day many inst.i.tutions, many customs, which past centuries would have looked upon as contrary to Divine and human law. In this connection we would say with Sancho Panza: "What is, is able to be."
The German philosopher, Herr von Kirchmann, is more decided in his views concerning the future of his countrywomen. In one of his last works, ent.i.tled "Questions and Dangers of the Hour" (_Zeitfragen und Abenteuer_) is a chapter on "Women in the Past and Future,"
where it is shown that the female s.e.x has been gradually gaining its freedom, and the prediction is made that the day is near at hand when women will obtain their complete independence and will compete with men in every department of life, not excepting politics.
Turning to the other great Germanic nation, Austria, we find still less progress than in the north. In fact, the movement in the south is little more than a question of woman"s self-support. The important problem of woman"s education is not yet resolved in Germany, and in Austria still less has been done. "In two particulars," writes a Berlin correspondent, "Austria may be said to be in advance of Germany. The admission of women to the university does not present such insurmountable difficulties, and her employment in railroad, post, and telegraph offices does not encounter such strong opposition." But it must not be supposed from this statement that the Austrian universities are open to women.
"Our universities are shut against women," Professor Wendt, of Troppau, informs me; "but they may pa.s.s the same examinations as boys who have finished their preparatory studies, though it is distinctly stated in the women"s diplomas that they may not continue their studies in the university." The professors, however, sometimes allow foreign girls to attend lectures. Professor Bruhl, of Vienna, for example, has lectured to men and women on anatomy.
The Academy of Fine Arts at Vienna is not open to women, though the Conservatory of Music is much frequented by them. In 1880, in fact, three women received prizes for musical compositions. Johanna Leitenberger, of Salzburg, writes:
Several newspapers are devoted to the different phases of the woman"s movement in Austria. Some years ago an ex-officer, Captain A. D. Korn, who, if I am not mistaken, had pa.s.sed some time in England and America, founded the _Women"s Universal Journal_ (_Allgemeine Frauen Zeitung_). This newspaper was wholly devoted to women"s interest, but it soon died. The same thing is true of the _Women"s Journal_ (_Frauenblatter_) of Gratz, which appeared for a short time under my editorship. * * * * On October 9, 10, 11, 1872, the third German women"s convention (_Deutsche Frauenkonferenz_) was held at Vienna, under the auspices of the general society for popular education and the amelioration of women"s condition. The other two sittings of this society had been held at Leipsic and Stuttgart. The soul of this new movement was Captain Korn, whom I have already mentioned. His study of the woman question in the United States may have prompted him to awaken a similar agitation among the women of the Austrian empire. Addresses were delivered at this convention by ladies from Vienna, Hungary, Bohemia and Styria and all the various interests of women were discussed. * * * * The proceedings of the convention attracted considerable attention, and produced favorable impressions on the audience, which was recruited from the better cla.s.ses of the population. But the newspapers of Vienna ridiculed the young movement, its friends grew lukewarm, and every trace was soon lost of this first and last Austrian women"s rights convention.
In one important particular the Austro-Hungarian empire treats women more fairly than is the case in other European countries.
Elise Krasnohorska, the Bohemian author, writes me:
Women have a voice in the munic.i.p.al, provincial and national elections, though male citizens duly authorized by them cast their vote. With this single reserve--a very important one, it must be confessed--our women are politically the equals of men.
At Prague, however, this is not the case. The Bohemian capital preserves an ancient privilege which is in contradiction to the Austrian electoral law, and which excludes us from the elective franchise. Universal suffrage does not exist in the empire, but the payment of a certain amount of taxes confers the right to vote. I do not enter into the details of the electoral law, which is somewhat complicated, which has its exceptions and contradictions, and is in fact an apple of discord in Austria in more than one respect; but, speaking generally, it may be said that a woman who owns property, who is in business, or who pays taxes, may designate a citizen possessing her confidence to represent her at the polls. Our women are satisfied with this system, and prefer it to casting their ballot in person.
It may be said, also, that women are eligible to office, or at least that there is no law against their accepting it, while there are instances of their having done so. In southern Bohemia, a short time ago, a countess was chosen member of a provincial a.s.sembly (_okresni zastupitestvo_) with the approval of the body, on the condition that she should not partic.i.p.ate personally in its deliberations, but should be represented by a man having full power to act for her. At Agram in Croatia, a woman was elected, a few years ago, member of the munic.i.p.al council, and no objection was made. Of course such cases are very rare, but they have their significance.
Carolina Svetla, the distinguished poet and author, has done, perhaps, the most to awaken thought on the woman question in Bohemia. She stands at the head of a talented group of literary women, which plays a brilliant part in the fatherland of Huss. The means for woman"s instruction, however, are most lamentable in Bohemia. The universities are shut against women, and though two women have been graduated in Switzerland, their degrees are not recognized in their native land. Beyond primary instruction the State does almost nothing for its women, though they outnumber the other s.e.x by two hundred thousand. In several of the large cities of Bohemia something has been accomplished for girls" high-school and normal-school instruction; but, in general, we may say that the intellectual development of Bohemian girls is left to private instruction. a.s.sociations of women have done much to fill this void, one of which, founded by Carolina Svetla, is devoted to the industrial and commercial instruction of girls. Two thousand women belong to this a.s.sociation, and five hundred girls attend its school annually, while many young women frequent its school for the training of nurses. This vigorous organization has disarmed prejudices by the success of its schools and by the arguments of its monthly organ, the _Zenske Listy_, ably edited by Elise Krasnohorska, one of the best known Bohemian poets, and a leader in the work of improving the condition of her countrywomen. Vojta Naprstek, a man who has justly been named "the woman"s advocate,"
has founded at Prague the Women"s American Club, whose object is charity and the intellectual elevation of women, and has presented the club a valuable collection of books and objects of art. A lady, writing me from Prague, says:
The club has always been in a most flourishing condition, although it has never had a const.i.tution or by-laws to hold it together,--nothing but the single bond of philanthropy. At first it had not even a name. But outsiders began to call its members "the Americans," because they adopted American improvements in their homes. The appellation was accepted by the club as an honorable t.i.tle, and from that time it formally called itself the "American Club."
The Austrian code, in its treatment of women, is unsurpa.s.sed in contradictions. Women, for example, may testify in criminal actions, but they may not be witnesses to the simplest legal doc.u.ment. There are many absurdities of this sort in the existing law which were unknown in the ancient code of independent Bohemia, which was more liberal in its treatment of women. Divorce exists, but divorced persons cannot marry again. Bohemia being a part of Austria, women vote in the same way as has already been mentioned in what was said of the latter country. But at Prague, however, women do not vote, the capital still retaining its old laws on this subject.
Concerning the other grand division of the empire of the Hapsburgs, Hungary, much the same may be said as of Bohemia. It is only within the last forty years that Hungary has striven to attain to the level of occidental civilization and culture, so that the question of the amelioration of women"s condition is of very recent origin in that country. Rose Revai, of Budapest, writes:
Hungarian legislators have always treated us favorably in all matters pertaining to the family, marriage and inheritance. By the mere act of marriage we attain our majority and are emanc.i.p.ated from tutelage. As heirs, our interests are not forgotten, and as widows, we have the control over our own children. In business and trade we enjoy equal rights with men.
And Hungarian women have not been slow to take advantage of these privileges, as is shown by those of our s.e.x who occupy worthy positions in literature, art, commerce, industry, the theater and the school-room.
Although the Hungarian universities are still closed against women, there are many girls" industrial and normal schools and colleges.
The impetus given to female education in Hungary is chiefly due to the late Baron Joseph Eoetvoes, the savant, poet and philanthropist, who was minister of public instruction in 1867.
Women are employed in the postal and telegraphic service.
Returning north, to Holland, we find much the same situation as in the other Teutonic nations. "The women of Holland are unquestionably better educated, and entertain as a body more liberal ideas than French women," said a Dutch lady to me, who had lived many years at Paris; "but, on the other hand, there is not the little group of women in the Netherlands who grasp the real meaning of the woman question as is the case here in France."
Woman"s social position is a little better in Holland than in the Catholic countries. In 1870 an essay on the woman question "by a lady" demanded political rights for women, and there are a few instances of women having lectured on that subject. The Dutch universities are open to female students, and Aletta Henriette Jacobs, the first and only female physician in Holland, has a successful practice at Amsterdam. Dr. Jacobs recently attempted to vote, and carried the question before the courts. Elise A.
Haighton, of Amsterdam, writes:
A few of our women do not hesitate to partic.i.p.ate in political and social discussions. The Union (_Unic_), a society which aims to promote popular interest in politics by meetings, debates, tracts, etc.; the Daybreak (_Dageraad_), a radical a.s.sociation which holds very ultra opinions on politics, religion and science, and supports a magazine to which many scientific men contribute; and the New Malthusian Band, an organization sufficiently explained by its name, all count several women among their members.
Elise van Calcar, the veteran Dutch auth.o.r.ess, sums up the situation in Holland, as follows:
I am sorry to have to confess that, as regards the general emanc.i.p.ation of women, we have accomplished but very little. Our work is indirect; we can only proclaim the injustice of our position.
Two countries, the product of Latin and Teutonic civilization, Belgium and Switzerland, must be touched upon before we turn to the Scandinavian people. Of the first, Belgium, about the same may be said as of Holland with which she was so long united politically. A correspondent in Belgium writes me as follows:
There cannot be said to be any movement in this country in favor of the emanc.i.p.ation of women. No journal, no a.s.sociation, no organization of any kind exists.
But public opinion is said to be quite favorable. Women are making their way slowly into certain callings. The professors of the universities of Liege and Ghent, when asked their opinion not long ago by the minister of public instruction, expressed a desire to see women admitted to the privileges of these inst.i.tutions on the same terms as men, and to-day female students are found at all the inst.i.tutions for higher education. Another correspondent writes:
Within the past few years an effort has been made among the women of the middle cla.s.ses in the large cities, and secondary and professional schools have been established for girls, which are already producing good fruit. This movement is beginning to make itself felt among the upper cla.s.ses, and it is to be hoped that the next generation will make longer strides in the direction of instruction than is the case with the present generation.
In one respect at least Belgium is far behind her neighbor, Holland. Dr. Isala van Diest, the first and so far the only female physician in Belgium, although she has pa.s.sed successfully all the necessary examinations and taken all the necessary degrees, may not practice medicine in her own country. She wrote me recently:
I fear I shall soon be obliged to give up the fight and go to France, England or Holland, unless I wish to lose the fruit of all my studies.