In New Brunswick in 1908, led by Mrs. Fiske, Mrs. Hathaway and Miss Peters, the suffragists memorialized the Legislature to extend the full suffrage to women but a bill for this purpose was defeated. In 1909 a bill to give it to taxpaying widows and spinsters pa.s.sed the Upper House and after much discussion in the Lower House was postponed. In 1915 married women were included in the Munic.i.p.al franchise possessed by widows and spinsters. These efforts were continued from year to year and finally after the Dominion franchise had been conferred, the Elections Act was amended by the Legislative a.s.sembly on April 17, 1919, to confer complete universal suffrage on women.
On May 20, 1919, the Council of Yukon Territory amended its Election Law to read: "In this Ordinance, unless the context otherwise requires, words importing the masculine gender include females and the words "voter" and "elector" include both men and women ... and under it women shall have the same rights and privileges as men."
Bills to give the full suffrage to women in Nova Scotia were many times defeated. In 1916, when all the western provinces were enfranchising their women, the Lower House of the Legislature pa.s.sed a bill for it and later rescinded it on the excuse that it was not desired by the women. This put them on their mettle and they took action to convince the lawmakers that they did want it. The suffrage society was re-organized and a resolution was adopted by the executive board of the Local Council of Women and sent to every member of the Legislature. A joint independent committee was created with Mrs.
Charles Archibald chairman and suffrage groups were formed within many organizations of women. All the members of the Government were interviewed and many promised support and the two Government newspapers were favorable. Before the committee had time to put in a bill one was drafted by Supreme Court Justice Russell and introduced by R. H. Graham. The women filled the galleries at its second reading and it pa.s.sed without opposition and was referred to the Law Amendments Committee, of which the Attorney General was chairman. It gave a public hearing and the women crowded the a.s.sembly Chamber upstairs and downstairs and nine short speeches were made by women.
The Premier and Attorney General said it was the best organized hearing and best presented case that had come before a House Committee in twenty-five years. The Bill was left with the committee with the a.s.surance that it would be well cared for--and then it was postponed indefinitely! The excuse was that there had been no demand from the country districts! By another year, however, it was too late for such tactics and when Lieutenant Governor McCallum Grant opened the Legislature with the speech from the throne on Feb. 21, 1918, he announced that the electoral franchise would be given to women. The amended Franchise Act went through the Lower House without opposition; had its second reading in the Senate April 29 and the third May 3, and received the royal a.s.sent May 23. This added the State suffrage to the Federal, which had been conferred the preceding month.
Widows and spinsters in the Province of Quebec had Munic.i.p.al and School suffrage from 1892. In 1903 in the city council of Montreal an amendment to the charter was moved to take it away. The Woman"s Christian Temperance Union held several large public meetings to oppose such action addressed by prominent men. The press published articles and letters of protest and it was voted down. In 1910 the first suffrage society was formed in Montreal with Mrs. Bullock president. In 1914 a deputation of Montreal women presented a pet.i.tion to the Premier, Sir Lorner Guoin, asking that women might sit on school boards and that the Munic.i.p.al franchise be extended to married women. No action was taken. After the Federal Suffrage was granted in 1918 by the Dominion Parliament, which included the women of Quebec, a bill was introduced in its Legislature to grant them the Provincial franchise, which was voted down. Similar bills were defeated in 1918 and 1920 and Quebec remains the only Province in Canada where women do not possess the State franchise in addition to the National.
NEWFOUNDLAND.
When the Provinces of Canada united in a Confederation Newfoundland was the only one that declined to enter it and remained independent.
Therefore, when the Dominion suffrage was conferred by the Parliament in 1918 it did not include the women of this island. This was keenly felt by many of them and they made efforts to have its Legislature grant them the Provincial franchise but without success. In 1921 the Woman Suffrage League determined to make an organized effort and collected a pet.i.tion of 10,000 names, representing every district, and presented it to the Legislature. From the first the Premier, Sir Richard Anderson Squires, was hostile and this was the case with most of the Cabinet, but Minister of Marine Coaker showed a friendly spirit; Minister of Justice Warren introduced the bill and Mr.
Jennings, chairman of the Board of Public Works, agreed to bring it up for action. After the sending of many deputations to the Executive Members of the Government the women were astonished at being told one day that these members had held a meeting and it had been arranged that the Premier himself should introduce the bill as a Government measure. Seven went with Mr. Jennings by pre-arrangement to the Premier"s office and meeting Mr. Coaker he said: "Your bill goes through all right, the Premier has his orders." Some provisions had been attached to the bill--non-eligibility to office, no voting power until the next general election and an age limit of 30 years. The Premier promised to have the Government reduce this to 25 and they were compelled to agree. Then he impressed upon them that the bill would go through as a Government measure, declaring: "I will pa.s.s it this session, whether the House closes in one month or three--what I say goes!"
Some time afterwards the women read in an account of the House proceedings that the Premier had said in answer to a question that the bill was not a Government measure. An official letter was at once sent from the Woman Suffrage League, reminding him of his promise, to which he made no answer. They obtained an interview with him at which he treated them very discourteously and denied all responsibility for the bill after its second reading. They could get no satisfaction from any member of the Government. The bill was not reported from the committee for weeks and when at last brought before the House in August it was turned over to a Select Committee of five, three of them p.r.o.nounced anti-suffragists, and was not heard of again.
SOUTH AFRICA.
At the present time South Africa has the distinction of being the only English-speaking nation that has not enfranchised its women. There seems to have been some agitation for a vote by the Boer women in early days but a "movement" for it was definitely begun in 1895, when at the annual conference of the Woman"s Christian Temperance Union of Cape Colony at Kimberley, woman suffrage was made one of their official departments of work. In 1902 a Woman"s Enfranchis.e.m.e.nt League was formed in Durban, Natal, and in a few years one in Cape Town, Cape Colony, followed by others in seven or eight towns. In 1904 M. L.
Neithling moved in the Legislative Council of Cape Colony a resolution to enfranchise widows and spinsters with the required property and educational qualifications, which was discussed but not voted on. In 1907 Dr. Viljoen presented one to extend the suffrage to women on the same terms as to men. The division showed 24 in favor of it, twelve from each party.
In 1909 the Enfranchis.e.m.e.nt Leagues of Durban, Cape Town, Johannesburg and Pretoria united in sending four delegates to the International Woman Suffrage Alliance meeting in London. This year representatives of Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal and Orange Free State met in a national convention to prepare a const.i.tution for the Union of South Africa and the suffrage leagues sent a numerously signed pet.i.tion asking that it include the franchise of women. This was rejected and they were told to "await a more convenient season." The women were much aroused and early in 1910 the Women"s Citizen Club of Cape Town and the Women"s Reform Club of Johannesburg were formed. In the summer of 1911 Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt, president of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, accompanied by Dr. Aletta Jacobs, president of the National a.s.sociation of The Netherlands, made a tour of 4,000 miles in South Africa, remaining 76 days. They were present when the delegates from eleven suffrage societies met and organized the Women"s Enfranchis.e.m.e.nt a.s.sociation of the Union of South Africa and it soon had twenty-two branches. The visits of the international president with the suffragists of the different localities gave them much courage and inspiration and thenceforth she was in close touch with them, conferring and advising.
The new a.s.sociation presented a monster pet.i.tion to the Parliament in 1912 and Mr. Andrews of the Transvaal introduced a woman suffrage bill, which after two days" debate was defeated by 70 to 30 votes. In 1914 Mr. Wyndham"s bill did not reach a vote. In 1917 Mr. Rockey"s was defeated by 63 to 28. In 1918 a woman suffrage clause in the new Electoral Bill was defeated by 54 to 39. All this time the splendid service and sacrifice of the women during the long years of the war was being lauded, while St. Paul"s definition of their "sphere" was being quoted as a reason for not giving them the suffrage.
In January, 1919, a conference took place in Cape Town and it was decided that the three suffrage a.s.sociations unite immediately and form a standing committee of their parliamentary secretaries through which intensive work could be done with the Parliament. On April 1 Mr.
Wyndham introduced the following motion: "In the opinion of this House the s.e.x qualification for the exercise of the parliamentary franchise should be removed." It simply affirmed the principle but was strenuously debated without regard to party lines and finally carried by a vote of 44 to 42. No further action was taken. Mrs. Laura Ruxton, parliamentary secretary, attended the convention of the Government Party to present the question, addressed it and the resolution to put a woman suffrage plank in the platform was carried by 72 to 58. The Unionist, Labor and South African parties accepted it, the Nationalist Party alone refusing it. At a banquet in Bloemfontaine Premier Botha appealed to the Parliament, saying that in view of the great services of women during the war the men would be compelled to give them the franchise. He died soon afterwards and pet.i.tions from the most representative citizens then began to pour in upon his successor, General s.m.u.ts.
In 1920 Daniel McLaren Brown presented a resolution that in the opinion of this House the time has arrived when the right of voting for members of Parliament and the Provincial Councils should be extended to women. After a two days" debate it pa.s.sed on May 3 by 66 ayes, 39 noes, a majority of 27 as against two a year before. Mr.
Brown then introduced a bill conferring this right. A deputation of 500 women carried an immense pet.i.tion for it to the Parliament and it pa.s.sed first reading by 66 to 47. Although Premier s.m.u.ts had supported it as "a great and necessary reform" and promised it every chance he declined to make it a Government measure or give any facilities for second reading. Mr. Brown and his House Committee and the Hon.
Secretary, Mr. Mullineux, worked valiantly for the bill but it got no further, although eight of the Cabinet ministers were in favor of it and the Government Party had endorsed it. It is the almost insurmountable objection to the colored vote which is the chief factor in preventing women"s enfranchis.e.m.e.nt.
The Parliament of Rhodesia gave full State suffrage to women in April, 1919, and that of the British East African Protectorate in July, 1919.
In both this carried eligibility to office and a woman was elected to the Parliament of Rhodesia in 1920. In several of the States women have the Munic.i.p.al franchise and have been elected to the city council.
INDIA.
There has been remarkable progress in the enfranchis.e.m.e.nt of women in India, although it has been for the most part since 1920, with which this volume of the History closes. The Women"s Indian a.s.sociation ranks with other women"s organizations in the British Dominions and has branches throughout the country. There are many political reform organizations and almost without exception they are willing to include women in any rights obtained. Increased opportunities for their education have been opened and there are hundreds of women university graduates. In several cities the limited munic.i.p.al vote that men have is shared by women and they are eligible to the council. In 1917 Great Britain announced that self-government would be given to the people of India and the Women"s Indian a.s.sociation and other agencies began a strenuous campaign to have women included. In 1918 the Women"s Indian a.s.sociation had suffrage resolutions introduced in many provincial conferences and national congresses of men and they were usually pa.s.sed by large majorities. The British Parliament sent a committee to India to collect evidence as to the amount of franchise that should be included in the proposed Government Bill and distinguished men and women appeared before it in behalf of women, among them Mrs. Annie Besant, president of the National Home Rule League of India, which was strongly in favor of woman suffrage.
Contrary to all the evidence the committee reported against it. Ma.s.s meetings of women in India were held in protest. In 1919 eminent women and men were sent to London to present the case to Parliament. They were cordially greeted by the British suffragists and given every possible a.s.sistance. A pet.i.tion was sent to the Government of India Committee by the Women Citizen"s Union of the British Dominions, where in all but South Africa women were now fully enfranchised.
All were in vain and woman suffrage was not included in the India Reform Bill but the question was left to the decision of the governing bodies that had been created. The women then had to begin campaigns throughout India, ma.s.s meetings, pet.i.tions, even processions and lobbying. In May, 1921, the Madras Presidency, one of the largest divisions of the country, gave the complete franchise to women and it was followed soon afterwards by the great Bombay Presidency, whose Legislative Council voted for it by 52 to 25, and by that of Burmah.
Each State has its Legislative Council and a number of these have given the vote to women. The movement is active for it throughout India.
FOOTNOTES:
[217] See History of Woman Suffrage, Vol. III, page 832.
[218] On Dec. 6, 1921, Miss Agnes McPhail was elected to the House of Commons for Southeast Grey.
[219] This Act was heralded far and wide, as it was unprecedented. In 1920, giving as a reason that the Act had been only a war measure, it was repealed bodily by the Parliament and the old Act subst.i.tuted with a few amendments that did not by any means give the privileges afforded by the new one. It was generally believed that this was done under the direct influence of England.
CHAPTER LIII.
WOMAN SUFFRAGE IN MANY COUNTRIES.
When Volume IV of the History of Woman Suffrage was written in 1900 four pages contained all the information that could be obtained in regard to woman suffrage outside of the United States and Great Britain and her colonies. At the time the first International Council of Women was held in Washington, in 1888, under the auspices of the National Woman Suffrage a.s.sociation of the United States, Great Britain was the only other country that had an organization for this purpose. At the writing of the present volume in 1920 there are comparatively few countries in the world having a const.i.tutional form of government where women are not enfranchised. The only two of influence in Europe are France and Italy; the others are Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, Greece and Turkey. Women do not vote in Oriental countries. This is also true of Mexico, Central and South America.
FINLAND.[220]
The first country in Europe to give equal suffrage to women was Finland in 1906, when it was a Grand Duchy of Russia with its own Diet or Parliament, whose bills required the sanction of the Czar to become laws. Girls were admitted to the full privileges of the university in 1878 and in the student organization they were on a footing of perfect equality. Important positions and even places in the civic administration were open to women. As early as 1863 the Diet gave the local or Munic.i.p.al vote to taxpaying women in the country and in 1872 to those in the towns, but not eligibility to office. In 1897 the Finnish Women"s a.s.sociation presented a pet.i.tion to the Diet for full suffrage, which did not reach second reading. Its president, Baroness Alexandra Gripenberg, had attended the World"s Congress of Women during the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 and become intimately acquainted with Miss Susan B. Anthony, Mrs. May Wright Sewall and other noted suffragists in the United States. In 1899 the sword of Russia descended, the const.i.tution of Finland was wrecked and her autonomy, religion, customs, language, everything sacred was threatened.
The real movement for the full enfranchis.e.m.e.nt of women began in 1904, when bills were introduced in the Diet. In the autumn the president of the Woman"s Alliance Union, Miss Annie Furuhjelm, returned from the inspiration of the great International Council of Women in Berlin and the forming of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance. With the political oppression now existing the women were feeling a strong desire to share in the responsibility for the fate of the country.
Under the auspices of the Union the first public meeting for woman suffrage was held in Helsingfors on November 7, attended by more than a thousand women of all cla.s.ses and all parties. Resolutions were pa.s.sed that the complete suffrage should be extended to every citizen and a pet.i.tion demanding it should be sent to the Diet. For the first time the Union included eligibility to office in its demands.
Forty-seven addresses of sympathy signed by hundreds of women were received from different parts of the country. From this time the Union devoted all its energies to the movement for the franchise.
In another year the Russo-j.a.panese War was over and Russia was in the midst of a revolution. In October, 1905, the long pent-up forces of Finland broke the barriers and a "national strike" was inaugurated.
Women were members of the central committee elected at a ma.s.s meeting to manage it. Those in the highest ranks of society had for the past year been members of a secret organization extending over the country raising funds, smuggling literature and daily risking their lives. For five days not a wheel turned and no work was done except under the most urgent necessity. There was perfect order and at intervals deputations of men and women went to the Russian Governor General in Helsingfors asking for the restoration of Finnish autonomy. At last the Government at St. Petersburg yielded, as all its forces were required in Russia. Meetings of women were then held in all parts of the country to elect delegates to another ma.s.s meeting in Helsingfors on December 7, where amid great enthusiasm a resolution was carried demanding full suffrage and eligibility for every citizen twenty-four years old.
On May 28, 1906, this reform was pa.s.sed by the Diet without objection.
It was taken to the Czar by the eminent Senator Mechelin, who a.s.sured him that the nation demanded it, and he gave his a.s.sent. The Diet consisted of four chambers--n.o.bles, clergy, burghers (taxpayers in towns and cities) and peasants who were landowners. It was now reorganized in a single chamber of 200 members. The first election took place March 15, 16, 1907, and 19 women were chosen, among them the Baroness Gripenberg by the Old Finnish Party. Miss Furuhjelm belongs to the comparatively small National Swedish Party, which elects few candidates. She was elected in 1913 and has been continuously re-elected. Following are the numbers of women members of Parliament: 1907--19; 1908--25; 1909--21; 1910--17; 1911--14; 1913--21; 1916--24; 1917--18; 1919--17. From the beginning the women members have introduced bills for much needed reforms, for the care of children, protection of wives and mothers, benefit of working women and many for social welfare. While the Czar was in power these were all vetoed. Since then, with their small number and the great questions that have pressed upon the Parliament, they have found it difficult to secure domestic legislation but they have united with the men in pa.s.sing many bills of a political nature.
In 1917 a law gave to every man and woman 21 years old Munic.i.p.al suffrage, without paying taxes, and eligibility to office and a number of women have been elected to city and rural councils. The Czar had hitherto vetoed this bill. In 1919, after a period of the greatest strife and sorrow, caused by the World War, Finland severed all connection with Russia and became an independent republic. In a new const.i.tution adopted at this time the word "citizen" was used instead of "man" and all legal disqualifications of women were removed. Both the men and women of Finland at last are free.
NORWAY.
The second country and the first independent Government in Europe to enfranchise women was Norway. With characteristic caution and conservatism this was done by degrees, beginning with the Munic.i.p.al vote for taxpayers, followed by the complete franchise, and then the removal of the taxpaying qualification for the former and at last for the full suffrage. The president of the National a.s.sociation through all the years has been Mrs. F. M. Qvam of Stenkjaer, county of N.
Trondhjem, to whom the women have given undivided allegiance. The History is indebted to Mrs. Qvam for most of the following information. In sending it she wrote: "The last twenty years are like an Adventure of a Thousand Nights for suffragists. What was sown and seemed lost has sprouted and brought the greatest victories around the world. May women now be able to do at least a little of the good that the workers for the suffrage have dreamt that it would bring to the nations." Its results in Norway certainly have realized that dream, as they have effected many beneficial changes in the laws.
The first demand for woman suffrage at a public meeting, so far as known, was made in 1869 by Mr. Qvam, a barrister. The pioneer of the organized movement was Miss Gina Krog, who, after having written and lectured on the subject for years, founded the Christiania Woman Suffrage Union in 1885. She was moved to do this by reading the early volumes of the History of Woman Suffrage, published about this time and sent by Miss Susan B. Anthony to the university at Christiania.
Miss Krog edited _Nylande_, a monthly devoted to the interests of women, and continued as president twelve years. She was succeeded by Miss Rogstad. In 1886 bills were presented to the Parliament in connection with an extension of the male suffrage. In 1888 the first large public meeting was held. These were continued, pet.i.tions were collected, bills were presented at every session, one in 1893 receiving a majority but not the necessary two-thirds. Women from other parts of the country became interested and on Feb. 12, 1898, the National Woman Suffrage a.s.sociation was organized; Mrs. Qvam was elected president. The a.s.sociation is still doing a vast amount of work in the interest of women and children. There was never an active working membership in the a.s.sociation of more than 2,500 but whenever pet.i.tions were needed for an advanced step the signatures poured in by the thousands and the Executive Committee was always a.s.sured of a large support. In 1899 the names signed to a pet.i.tion for equal suffrage numbered 12,000.
As the grant of universal suffrage to men had been made only the preceding year it was too much to expect it for women at once but through the a.s.sistance of Liberals and Radicals with the help of many Conservative members, and the efforts of women themselves, the Munic.i.p.al suffrage was given by the Parliament in May, 1901, to the following: All who pay taxes to State or Munic.i.p.ality on an income of 400 kroner in the towns and 300 (about $71) in the country districts, or have complete or partial joint property with a husband who pays such tax. The amount was so small that a considerable proportion received this vote. It carried eligibility to the munic.i.p.al councils and this year 98 women were elected and 160 "subst.i.tutes." The National Executive Committee conducted an active campaign of literature and lectures to rouse the women to exercise their new privilege, and it continued to ask for the full suffrage. In 1905 the momentous question arose of separation from Sweden. The women made every effort to be permitted to vote in the referendum but in vain.
The National Suffrage a.s.sociation then undertook the task of obtaining the personal signatures of women to a pet.i.tion in favor of separation and on August 22 the Executive Committee presented it with an address to the president of the Storthing with the statement that it was signed by 300,000 women, a very large proportion of the adults. All the members arose in tribute to the women.
As a result of this action by the National a.s.sociation its pet.i.tion in 1906 was received with much sympathy. During the summer before the next Storthing was to be elected the Executive Committee carried on a most strenuous campaign. The president and other members went to the political meetings of all parties to secure endors.e.m.e.nt. They called attention to the granting of universal suffrage to women by the Parliament of Finland in May of that year. The fifty branches throughout the country held meetings and sent appeals. In August, when the campaign was at its height, the International Woman Suffrage Alliance held a most successful congress in Copenhagen, which was enthusiastically commented on by the Danish press and that of Norway adopted an entirely different att.i.tude from this time. The Lefts and the Socialists, who had put the plank in their platforms, elected a majority of the Storthing but from January to June the women were in the greatest suspense and those in the different const.i.tuencies were working on their members. Finally on June 14, 1907, after only two hours" debate, the complete franchise with full eligibility was conferred on women by 96 to 23 votes, only 82 being needed.
This grant was made to the taxpaying women who had the Munic.i.p.al franchise and it was then the work of the National a.s.sociation to have it made universal. On June 7, 1910, it succeeded in having the taxpaying qualification removed for the Munic.i.p.al suffrage, and on June 11, 1913, a paragraph was added to the const.i.tution which provided that "all men and women 25 years of age, who have been domiciled in Norway five years shall be ent.i.tled to the complete franchise and eligibility." Over half the total number of voters are women. Women may be Premier, State officers, Judges, magistrates, sheriffs, professors in the university, even the theological department, and are eligible to all public offices with equal pay. The const.i.tutional arrangement for electing members of Parliament has been an obstacle to the election of women but it has now been remedied.