[226] This incident was revealed by Enrico Ferri, in his remarkable speech in the Italian Parliament on July 9, 1919. Cf. _La Stampa_, July 10, 1919, page 2.
[227] Cf. _The Morning Post_, July 9, 1919.
[228] On July 10th the Italian Finance Minister, in his financial statement, announced that the total cost of the war to Italy would amount to one hundred milliard lire. He added, however, that her share of the German indemnity would wipe out her foreign debt, while a progressive tax on all but small fortunes would meet her internal obligations. Cf. _Corriere della Sera_, July 11 and 12, 1919.
[229] Cf. _Avanti_, July 19, 1919.
[230] Shown in percentages, the rise in the cost of living was: United States, 220 per cent.; England, 240 per cent.; Switzerland, 257 per cent.; France, 368 per cent.; Italy, 481 per cent.
[231] Enrico Ferri, on July 9, 1919. Cf. _La Stampa_, July 10, 1919.
[232] At a later date the President reiterated the grounds of his decision. In his Columbus speech (September 4, 1919) he a.s.serted that "Italy desired Fiume for strategic military reasons, which the League of Nations would make unnecessary." (_The New York Herald_ (Paris edition), September 6, 1919.) But the League did not render strategic precautions unnecessary to France.
[233] _Corriere della Sera_, May 11, 1919.
[234] _La Stampa_, July 16, 1919.
[235] _Avanti_, April 27, 1919. Cf. _Le Temps_, April 28, 1919.
[236] _Corriere della Sera_, August 9, 1919.
[237] _Corriere della Sera_, September 3, 1919.
[238] Quoted in _La Stampa_ of July 20, 1919.
[239] _Ibidem_.
[240] _Corriere d" Italia_, June 29, 1919.
[241] Cf. _Modern Italy_, July 12, 1919 (page 298).
[242] _Echo de Paris_, July 7, 1919.
[243] Cf. "An Italian Expose," published by _The Morning Post_, July 5, 1919.
IX
j.a.pAN
Among the solutions of the burning questions which exercised the ingenuity and tested the good faith of the leading Powers at the Peace Conference, none was more rapidly reached there, or more bitterly a.s.sailed outside, than those in which j.a.pan was specially interested.
The storm that began to rage as soon as the Supreme Council"s decision on the Shantung issue became known did not soon subside. Far from that, it threatened for a time to swell into a veritable hurricane. This problem, like most of those which were submitted to the forum of the Conference, may be envisaged from either of two opposite angles of survey; from that of the future society of justice-loving nations, whose members are to forswear territorial aggrandizement, special economic privileges, and political sway in, or at the expense of, other countries; or from the traditional point of view, which has always prevailed in international politics and which cannot be better described than by Signor Salandra"s well-known phrase "sacred egotism." Viewed in the former light, j.a.pan"s demand for Shantung was undoubtedly as much a stride backward as were those of the United States and France for the Monroe Doctrine and the Saar Valley respectively. But as the three Great Powers had set the example, j.a.pan was resolved from the outset to rebel against any decree relegating her to the second-or third-cla.s.s nations.
The position of equality occupied by her government among the governments of other Great Powers did not extend to the j.a.panese nation among the other nations. But her statesmen refused to admit this artificial inferiority as a reason for descending another step in the international hierarchy and they invoked the principle of which Britain, France, and America had already taken advantage.
The Supreme Council, like Ja.n.u.s of old, possessed two faces, one altruistic and the other egotistic, and, also like that son of Apollo, held a key in its right hand and a rod in its left. It applied to the various states, according to its own interest or convenience, the principles of the old or the new Covenant, and would fain have dispossessed j.a.pan of the fruits of the campaign, and allotted to her the role of working without reward in the vineyard of the millennium, were it not that this policy was excluded by reasons of present expediency and previous commitments. The expediency was represented by President Wilson"s determination to obtain, before returning to Washington, some kind of a compact that might be described as the const.i.tution of the future society of nations, and by his belief that this instrument could not be obtained without j.a.pan"s adherence, which was dependent on her demand for Shantung being allowed. And the previous commitments were the secret compacts concluded by j.a.pan with Britain, France, Russia, and Italy before the United States entered the war.
Nippon"s role in the war and the circ.u.mstances that shaped it are scarcely realized by the general public. They have been purposely thrust in the background. And yet a knowledge of them is essential to those who wish to understand the significance of the dispute about Shantung, which at bottom was the problem of j.a.pan"s international status. Before attempting to a.n.a.lyze them, however, it may not be amiss to remark that during the French press campaign conducted in the years 1915-16, with the object of determining the Tokio Cabinet to take part in the military operations in Europe, the question of motive was discussed with a degree of tactlessness which it is difficult to account for. It was affirmed, for example, that the Mikado"s people would be overjoyed if the Allied governments vouchsafed them the honor of partic.i.p.ating in the great civilizing crusade against the Central Empires. That was proclaimed to be such an enviable privilege that to pay for it no sacrifice of men or money would be exorbitant. Again, the degree to which Germany is a menace to j.a.pan was another of the texts on which Entente publicists relied to scare Nippon into drastic action, as though she needed to be told by Europeans where her vital interests lay, from what quarters they were jeopardized, and how they might be safeguarded most successfully.
So much for the question of tact and form. j.a.pan has never accepted the doctrine of altruism in politics which her Western allies have so zealously preached. Until means have been devised and adopted for subst.i.tuting moral for military force in the relations of state with state, the only reconstruction of the world in which the j.a.panese can believe is that which is based upon treaties and the pledged word. That is the principle which underlies the general policy and the present strivings of our Far Eastern ally.
One of the characteristic traits of all Nippon"s dealings with her neighbors is loyalty and trustworthiness. Her intercourse with Russia before and after the Manchurian campaign offers a shining example of all the qualities which one would postulate in a true-hearted neighbor and a stanch and chivalrous ally. I had an opportunity of watching the development of the relations between the two governments for many years before they quarreled, and subsequently down to 1914, and I can state that the praise lavished by the Tsar"s Ministers on their j.a.panese colleagues was well deserved. And for that reason it may be taken as an axiom that whatever developments the present situation may bring forth, the Empire of Nippon will carry out all its engagements with scrupulous exact.i.tude, in the spirit as well as the letter.
To be quite frank, then, the j.a.panese are what we should term realists.
Consequently their foreign policy is inspired by the maxims which actuated all nations down to the year 1914, and still move nearly all of them to-day. In fact, the only Powers that have fully and authoritatively repudiated them as yet are Bolshevist Russia, and to a large extent the United States. Holding thus to the old dispensation, j.a.pan entered the war in response to a definite demand made by the British government. The day before Britain declared war against Germany the British Amba.s.sador at Tokio officially inquired whether his government could count upon the active co-operation of the Mikado"s forces in the campaign about to begin. On August 4th Baron Kato, having in the meanwhile consulted his colleagues, answered in the affirmative.
Three days later another communication reached Tokio from London, requesting the _immediate_ co-operation of j.a.pan, and on the following day it was promised. The motive for this haste was credibly a.s.serted to be Britain"s apprehension lest Germany should transfer Kiaochow to China, and reserve to herself, in virtue of Article V of the Convention of 1898, the right of securing after the war "a more suitable territory"
in the Middle Empire or Republic. Thereupon they began operations which were at first restricted to the China seas, but were afterward extended to the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and finally to the Mediterranean. The only task that fell to their lot on land was that of capturing Kiaochow.
But whatever they set their hands to they carried out thoroughly, and to the complete satisfaction of their European allies.
For many years the people of Nippon have been wending slowly, but with tireless perseverance and unerring instinct, toward their far-off goal, which to the unbiased historian will seem not merely legitimate but praiseworthy. Their intercourse with Russia was the story of one long laborious endeavor to found a common concern which should enable j.a.pan to make headway on her mission. Russia was just the kind of partner whose co-operation was especially welcome, seeing that it could be had without the hitches and set-backs attached to that of most other Great Powers. The Russians were never really intolerant in racial matters, nor dangerous in commercial rivalry. They intermarried freely with all the so-called inferior races and tribes in the Tsardom, and put all on an equal footing before the law. Twenty-three years ago I paid a visit to my friend General Tomitch, the military governor of Kars, and I found myself sitting at his table beside the Prefect of the city, who was a Mohammedan. The individual Russian is generally free from racial prejudices; he has no sense of the "yellow peril," and no objection to receive the j.a.panese as a comrade, a colleague, or a son-in-law.
And the advances made by Ito and others would have been reciprocated by Witte and Lamsdorff were it not that the Tsar, interested in Bezobrazoff"s Yalu venture, subordinated his policy to those vested interests, and compelled j.a.pan to fight. The master-idea of the policy of Ito, with whom I had two interesting conversations on the subject, was to strike up a close friendship with the Tsardom, based on community of durable interests, and to bespeak Russia"s help for the hour of storm and stress which one day might strike. The Tsar"s government was inspired by a.n.a.logous motives. Before the war was terminated I repaired to London on behalf of Russia, in order to propose to the j.a.panese government, in addition to the treaty of peace which was about to be discussed at Portsmouth, an offensive and defensive alliance, and to ask that Prince Ito be sent as first plenipotentiary, invested with full powers to conclude such a treaty.
M. Izvolsky"s policy toward j.a.pan, frank and statesman-like, had an offensive and a defensive alliance for its intended culmination, and the treaties and conventions which he actually concluded with Viscount Motono, in drafting which I played a modest part, amounted almost to this. The Tsar"s opposition to the concessions which represented Russia"s share of the compromise was a tremendous obstacle, which only the threat of the Minister"s resignation finally overcame. And Izvolsky"s energy and insistence hastened the conclusion of a treaty between them to maintain and respect the _status quo_ in Manchuria, and, in case it was menaced, to concert with each other the measures they might deem necessary for the maintenance of the _status quo_. And it was no longer stipulated, as it had been before, that these measures must have a pacific character. They were prepared to go farther. And I may now reveal the fact that the treaty had a secret clause, providing for the action which Russia afterward took in Mongolia.
These transactions one might term the first act of the international drama which is still proceeding. They indicate, if they did not shape, the mold in which the bronze of j.a.pan"s political program was cast. It necessarily differed from other politics, although the maxims underlying it were the same. j.a.pan, having become a Great Power after her war with China, was slowly developing into a world Power, and hoped to establish her claim to that position one day. It was against that day that she would fain have acquired a puissant and trustworthy ally, and she left nothing undone to deserve the whole-hearted support of Russia. In the historic year of 1914, many months before the storm-cloud broke, the War Minister Sukhomlinoff transferred nearly all the garrisons from Siberia to Europe, because he had had a.s.surances from j.a.pan which warranted him in thus denuding the eastern border of troops. During the campaign, when the Russian offensive broke down and the armies of the enemy were driving the Tsar"s troops like sheep before them, j.a.pan hastened to the a.s.sistance of her neighbor, to whom she threw open her military a.r.s.enals, and many private establishments as well. And when the Petrograd Cabinet was no longer able to meet the financial liabilities incurred, the Mikado"s advisers devised a generous arrangement on lines which brought both countries into still closer and more friendly relations.
The most influential daily press organ in the Tsardom, the _Novoye Vremya_, wrote: "The war with Germany has supplied our Asiatic neighbor with an opportunity of proving the sincerity of her friendly a.s.surances.
She behaves not merely like a good friend, but like a stanch military ally.... In the interests of the future tranquil development of j.a.pan a more active partic.i.p.ation of the j.a.panese is requisite in the war of the nations against the world-beast of prey. An alliance with Russia for the attainment of this object would be an act of immense historic significance."[244]
Ever since her entry into the community of progressive nations, j.a.pan"s main aspiration and striving has been to play a leading and a civilizing part in the Far East, and in especial to determine China by advice and organization to move into line with herself, adopt Western methods and apply them to Far-Eastern aims. And this might well seem a legitimate as well as a profitable policy, and a task as n.o.ble as most or those to which the world is wont to pay a tribute of high praise. It appeared all the more licit that the Powers of Europe, with the exception of Russia, had denied full political rights to the colored alien. He was placed in a category apart--an inferior cla.s.s member of humanity.
"In j.a.pan, and as yet in j.a.pan alone, do we find the Asiatic welcoming European culture, in which, if a tree may fairly be judged by its fruit, is to be found the best prospect for the human personal liberty, in due combination with restraints of law sufficient to, but not in excess of, the requirements of the general welfare. In this particular distinctiveness of characteristic, which has thus differentiated the receptivity of the j.a.panese from that of the continental Asiatic, we may perhaps see the influence of the insular environment that has permitted and favored the evolution of a strong national personality; and in the same condition we may not err in finding a promise of power to preserve and to propagate, by example and by influence, among those akin to her, the new policy which she has adopted, and by which she has profited, affording to them the example which she herself has found in the development of Eastern peoples."[245]
Now that is exactly what the j.a.panese aimed at accomplishing. They were desirous of contributing to the intellectual and moral advance of the Chinese and other backward peoples of the Far East, in the same way as France is laudably desirous of aiding the Syrians, or Great Britain the Persians. And what is more, j.a.pan undertook to uphold the principle of the open door, and generally to respect the legitimate interests of European peoples in the Far East.
But the white races had economic designs of their own on China, and one of the preliminary conditions of their execution was that j.a.pan"s aspirations should be foiled. Witte opened the campaign by inaugurating the process of peaceful penetration, but his remarkable efforts were neutralized and defeated by his own sovereign. The j.a.panese, after the Manchurian campaign, which they had done everything possible to avoid, contrived wholly to eliminate Russian aggression from the Far East. The feat was arduous and the masterly way in which it was tackled and achieved sheds a l.u.s.ter on j.a.panese statesmanship as personified by Viscount Motono. The Tsardom, in lieu of a potential enemy, was transformed into a stanch and powerful friend and ally, on whom Nippon could, as she believed, rely against future aggressors. Russia came to stand toward her in the same political relationship as toward France.
j.a.panese statesmen took the alliance with the Tsardom as a solid and durable postulate of their foreign policy.
All at once the Tsardom fell to pieces like a house of cards, and the fragments that emerged from the ruins possessed neither the will nor the power to stand by their Far Eastern neighbors. The fruits of twelve years" statesmanship and heavy sacrifices were swept away by the Russian revolution, and j.a.pan"s diplomatic position was therefore worse beyond compare than that of the French Republic in July, 1917, because the latter was forthwith sustained by Great Britain and the United States, with such abundance of military and economic resources as made up in the long run for that of Russia. j.a.pan, on the other hand, has as yet no subst.i.tute for her prostrate ally. She is still alone among Powers some of whom decline to recognize her equality, while others are ready to thwart her policy and disable her for the coming race.
The j.a.panese are firm believers in the law of causality. Where they desire to reap, there they first sow. They invariably strive to deal with a situation while there is still time to modify it, and they take pains to render the means adequate to the end. Unlike the peoples of western Europe and the United States, the j.a.panese show a profound respect for the principles of authority and inequality, and reserve the higher functions in the community for men of the greatest ability and attainments. It is a fact, however, that individual liberty has made perceptible progress in the population, and is still growing, owing to the increase of economic well-being and the spread of general and technical education. But although socialism is likewise spreading fast, I feel inclined to think that in j.a.pan a high grade of instruction and of social development on latter-day lines will be found compatible with that extraordinary cohesiveness to which the race owes the position which it occupies among the communities of the world. The soul of the individual j.a.panese may be said to float in an atmosphere of collectivity, which, while leaving his intellect intact, sways his sentiments and modifies his character by rendering him impressible to motives of an order which has the weal of the race for its object.
j.a.pan has borrowed what seemed to her leaders to be the best of everything in foreign countries. They a.n.a.lyzed the military, political, and industrial successes of their friends and enemies, satisfactorily explained and duly fructified them. They use the school as the seed-plot of the state, and inculcate conceptions there which the entire community endeavors later on to embody in acts and inst.i.tutions. And what the elementary school has begun, the intermediate, the technical, and the high schools develop and perfect, aided by the press, which is encouraged by the state.
j.a.pan"s ideal cannot be offhandedly condemned as immoral, pernicious, or illegitimate. Its partizans pertinently invoke every principle which their Allies applied to their own aims and strivings. And men of deeper insight than those who preside over the fortunes of the Entente to-day recognize that Europeans of high principles and discerning minds, who perceive the central issues, would, were they in the position of the j.a.panese statesmen, likewise bend their energies to the achievement of the same aims.
The j.a.panese argue their case somewhat as follows:
"We are determined to help China to put herself in line with ourselves, and to keep her from falling into anarchy. And no one can honestly deny our qualifications. We and they have very much in common, and we understand them as no Anglo-Saxon or other foreign people can. On the one hand our own past experience resembles that of the Middle Kingdom, and on the other our method of adapting ourselves to the new international conditions challenged and received the ungrudging admiration of a world disposed to be critical. The Peking treaties of May, 1915, between China and j.a.pan, and the pristine drafts of them which were modified before signature, enable the outsider to form a fairly accurate opinion of j.a.pan"s economic and political program, which amounts to the application of a Far Eastern Monroe Doctrine.
"What we seek to obtain in the Far East is what the Western Powers have secured throughout the remainder of the globe: the right to contribute to the moral and intellectual progress of our backward neighbors, and to profit by our exertions. China needs the help which we are admittedly able to bestow. To our mission no cogent objection has ever been offered. No Cabinet in Tokio has ever looked upon the Middle Realm as a possible colony for the j.a.panese. The notion is preposterous, seeing that China is already over-populated. What j.a.pan sorely needs are sources whence to draw coal and iron for industrial enterprise. She also needs cotton and leather."
In truth, the ever-ready command of these raw materials at their sources, which must be neither remote nor subject to potential enemies, is indispensable to the success of j.a.pan"s development. But for the moment the English-speaking nations have a veto upon them, in virtue of possession, and the embargo put by the United States government upon the export of steel during the war caused a profound emotion in Nippon. For the shipbuilding works there had increased in number from nine before the war to twelve in 1917, and to twenty-eight at the beginning of 1918, with one hundred slips capable of producing six hundred thousand tons of net register. The effect of that embargo was to shut down between 70 and 80 per cent. of the shipbuilding works of the country, and to menace with extinction an industry which was bringing in immense profits.
It was with these antecedents and aims that j.a.pan appeared before the Conference in Paris and asked, not for something which she lacked before, but merely for the confirmation of what she already possessed by treaty. It must be admitted that she had damaged her cause by the manner in which that treaty had been obtained. To say that she had intimidated the Chinese, instead of coaxing them or bargaining with them, would be a truism. The fall of Tsingtao gave her a favorable opportunity, and she used and misused it unjustifiably. The demands in themselves were open to discussion and, if one weighs all the circ.u.mstances, would not deserve a cla.s.sification different from some of those--the protection of minorities or the transit proviso, for example--imposed by the greater on the lesser nations at the Conference. But the mode in which they were pressed irritated the susceptible Chinese and belied the professions made by the Mikado"s Ministers. The secrecy, too, with which the Tokio Cabinet endeavored to surround them warranted the worst construction.
Yuan Shi Kai[246] regarded the procedure as a deadly insult to himself and his country. And the circ.u.mstance that the j.a.panese government failed either to foresee or to avoid this amazing psychological blunder lent color to the objections of those who questioned j.a.pan"s qualifications for the mission she had set herself. The wound inflicted on China by that exhibition of insolence will not soon heal. How it reacted may be inferred from the strenuous and well-calculated opposition of the Chinese delegation at the Conference.