8 (p. 338) (p. 338) "Mowgli the Frog have I been "Mowgli the Frog have I been ... ... At the end I shall be Mowgli the Man": At the end I shall be Mowgli the Man": Mowgli"s description of his own evolution recalls the nineteenth century"s most popular offshoot of English naturalist Charles Darwin"s (1809-1882) thought: recapitulation theory. This highly influential theory of human development set forth the idea "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"-that is, the development of an individual embryo or youth of a species replays the development of the species as a whole. Thus it was believed that children hark back to earlier "primitive" stages in the history of human evolution. Mowgli"s description of his own evolution recalls the nineteenth century"s most popular offshoot of English naturalist Charles Darwin"s (1809-1882) thought: recapitulation theory. This highly influential theory of human development set forth the idea "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"-that is, the development of an individual embryo or youth of a species replays the development of the species as a whole. Thus it was believed that children hark back to earlier "primitive" stages in the history of human evolution.
9 (p. 375) Prisoned from our Mother-sky: These words, spoken upon Mowgli"s departure from the Edenic Jungle, recall English poet William Wordsworth"s ode "Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood" (1803-1806) : "Shades of the Prison-house begin to close / Upon the growing boy." (p. 375) Prisoned from our Mother-sky: These words, spoken upon Mowgli"s departure from the Edenic Jungle, recall English poet William Wordsworth"s ode "Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood" (1803-1806) : "Shades of the Prison-house begin to close / Upon the growing boy."
Inspired by The Jungle Books MUSIC.
Over the years, literally hundreds of Kipling"s works have been set to music. Of the many composers to interpret Kipling"s works, two-Charles Koechlin and Percy Grainger-devoted much of their professional lives to Mowgli"s musical fate.
French composer Koechlin spent four decades (1899-1940) composing music based on Kipling"s stories. A pupil of Ma.s.senet and Faure, Koechlin wrote a variety of works: symphonies and symphonic poems, as well as chamber and choral compositions. However, he is best known for his music inspired by The Jungle Books. The Jungle Books. The composer"s nearly lifelong process of creating these works involved sketches, revisions, performances, and more revisions. His complete The composer"s nearly lifelong process of creating these works involved sketches, revisions, performances, and more revisions. His complete Jungle Book Jungle Book cycle comprises four symphonic poems, including cycle comprises four symphonic poems, including La loi de la jungle La loi de la jungle, La course de printemps La course de printemps, and Les Bandar-Log Les Bandar-Log, and three contrasting songs. The symphonic poem Les Bandar-Log Les Bandar-Log, perhaps Koechlin"s most famous piece of music, displays his fluency with both old and new styles, as well as his penchants for satire and dreamy, surrealistic imagery. The Song of Kala Nag The Song of Kala Nag uses frantic trumpeting to evoke Little Toomai"s elephants. A recording of Koechlin"s uses frantic trumpeting to evoke Little Toomai"s elephants. A recording of Koechlin"s Jungle Book, Jungle Book, with David Zinman conducting the Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra, won the 1994 Gramophone Award for Best Orchestral Recording. with David Zinman conducting the Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra, won the 1994 Gramophone Award for Best Orchestral Recording.
During the same period, Australian-born American composer Percy Grainger wrote and repeatedly revised his own Jungle Book Jungle Book cycle, to create what he considered to be among his best and most ambitious works: "My Kipling cycle, to create what he considered to be among his best and most ambitious works: "My Kipling Jungle Book Cycle, Jungle Book Cycle, begun in 1898 and finished in 1947, was composed as a protest against civilization." Grainger did not publish the work until 1958, and a full recording did not appear until 1996. Of the twenty-two Kipling movements Grainger published, eleven ate dedicated to begun in 1898 and finished in 1947, was composed as a protest against civilization." Grainger did not publish the work until 1958, and a full recording did not appear until 1996. Of the twenty-two Kipling movements Grainger published, eleven ate dedicated to The Jungle Books. The Jungle Books. The songs-eight from The songs-eight from The Jungle Books, The Jungle Books, two from two from Plain Tales from the Hills, Plain Tales from the Hills, and one from and one from Many Inventions Many Inventions-all retain Kipling"s verse. Grainger"s melancholy, almost elegiac songs borrow heavily from folk tradition and present an impressive array of chorus/instrument combinations. Collectively they evoke the jungle"s emotional drama and a nostalgia for childhood innocence. Grainger wrote: "The worth of my music will never be guessed or its value to mankind felt, until the approach to it is consciously undertaken as a pilgrimage to sorrows."
FILM.
Audiences have been enraptured by jungle films since the first Tarzan Tarzan movie was released in 1918, so the deluge of Kipling adaptations is no surprise. The first screen version of movie was released in 1918, so the deluge of Kipling adaptations is no surprise. The first screen version of The Jungle Books, The Jungle Books, which premiered in 1942, was directed by Zoltan Korda, brother of legendary director and producer Alexander Korda. Playing the part of Mowgli is India native Sabu, who made his debut in the Korda-produced which premiered in 1942, was directed by Zoltan Korda, brother of legendary director and producer Alexander Korda. Playing the part of Mowgli is India native Sabu, who made his debut in the Korda-produced Elephant Boy Elephant Boy (1937), a film based on Kipling"s (1937), a film based on Kipling"s Jungle Book Jungle Book story "Toomai of the Elephants." In Korda"s version, the jungle is a dark, terrifying, and dangerous place. The live animals featured in several scenes nearly steal the show with their displays of both tenderness and ferocity. A number of scenes are set in Mowgli"s village, a human jungle in which mankind"s greed is its undoing. story "Toomai of the Elephants." In Korda"s version, the jungle is a dark, terrifying, and dangerous place. The live animals featured in several scenes nearly steal the show with their displays of both tenderness and ferocity. A number of scenes are set in Mowgli"s village, a human jungle in which mankind"s greed is its undoing. Jungle Book Jungle Book was nominated for four Academy Awards: color Cinematography, Color Art Direction, Dramatic Score, and Special Effects. was nominated for four Academy Awards: color Cinematography, Color Art Direction, Dramatic Score, and Special Effects.
Disney"s final animated feature to be completed during Walt Disney"s lifetime was the immensely successful The Jungle Book The Jungle Book (1967). In this version, a rather dimwitted Mowgli sings and dances with his cleverer animal friends, including Bagheera the panther (voiced by Sebastian Cabot) and Baloo the lazy, cuddly bear (Phil Harris). The coming-of-age "man-cub" meets more creatures in his forays into the brilliantly painted jungle: a band of marching elephants, the humorous, c.o.c.kney-accented vultures, the deceptive serpent Kaa, and the murderous tiger Shere Khan (the silver-tongued George Sanders). For the most part, Kipling"s plot is reduced to a series of lively musical numbers; among the catchiest songs are "The Bare Necessities" and "I Wanna Be Like You." Another of the film"s high points is King Louie (voiced by swing legend Louis Prima), the scheming orangutan who kidnaps Mowgli. The ma.s.s appeal of this 1967 cartoon gave rise to several sequels. In 1994 Disney released a live-action version of (1967). In this version, a rather dimwitted Mowgli sings and dances with his cleverer animal friends, including Bagheera the panther (voiced by Sebastian Cabot) and Baloo the lazy, cuddly bear (Phil Harris). The coming-of-age "man-cub" meets more creatures in his forays into the brilliantly painted jungle: a band of marching elephants, the humorous, c.o.c.kney-accented vultures, the deceptive serpent Kaa, and the murderous tiger Shere Khan (the silver-tongued George Sanders). For the most part, Kipling"s plot is reduced to a series of lively musical numbers; among the catchiest songs are "The Bare Necessities" and "I Wanna Be Like You." Another of the film"s high points is King Louie (voiced by swing legend Louis Prima), the scheming orangutan who kidnaps Mowgli. The ma.s.s appeal of this 1967 cartoon gave rise to several sequels. In 1994 Disney released a live-action version of The Jungle Book, The Jungle Book, with an all-star cast that includes Jason Scott Lee, John Cleese, Sam Neill, and Cary Elwes. Directed by Stephen Som mers, this fast-paced action-adventure largely replaces the character development of Kipling"s animals with Mowgli"s romance with a British girl named Kitty and Juan Ruiz Anchia"s lush, beautiful photography. This film, in turn, led to a direct-to-video sequel with a new cast, with an all-star cast that includes Jason Scott Lee, John Cleese, Sam Neill, and Cary Elwes. Directed by Stephen Som mers, this fast-paced action-adventure largely replaces the character development of Kipling"s animals with Mowgli"s romance with a British girl named Kitty and Juan Ruiz Anchia"s lush, beautiful photography. This film, in turn, led to a direct-to-video sequel with a new cast, The Second Jungle Book: Mowgli and Baloo The Second Jungle Book: Mowgli and Baloo (1997). In 2003 Disney revisited their 1967 film with an animated sequel, (1997). In 2003 Disney revisited their 1967 film with an animated sequel, The Jungle Book 2, The Jungle Book 2, featuring the voices of Haley Joel Osment and John Goodman. featuring the voices of Haley Joel Osment and John Goodman.
Comments & Questions In this section, we aim to provide the reader with an array of perspectives on the text, as well as questions that challenge those perspectives. The commentary has been culled from sources as diverse as reviews contemporaneous with the works, letters written by the author, literary criticism of later generations, and appreciations written throughout the works" history. Following the commentary, a series of questions seeks to filter Rudyard Kipling"s The Jungle Books The Jungle Books through a variety of points of view and bring about a richer understanding of these enduring works. through a variety of points of view and bring about a richer understanding of these enduring works.
COMMENTS.
London Quarterly Review The Jungle Books carry us into a new wonderland. The spell is never broken; Mowgli, the man cub, with his daring, his gentleness, and his strength, learns all the secrets of the jungle and becomes its master. His early adventures, "Kaa"s Hunting," which brought ruin to the chattering monkeys; "The White Seal"; and above all the stories of the brave mongoose; and "Toomai of the Elephants," are pictures unique in their interest. Young and old will be equally charmed with these tales. The Second Jungle Book The Second Jungle Book is as spirited and fascinating as the first. "The Miracle of Purun Bhagat" is a wonderful study of Indian religious life, and also of the power of gentleness in taming all the creatures of the forest, whilst "Letting in the Jungle," which describes the way in which Mowgli led the elephants to devastate the lands of the man pack who had served him so cruelly; the alligator"s terrible story, and "Red Dog," the record of a life and death encounter with a pack of wild dogs, are full of spirit and make a reader"s pulses beat high. Mr. Rudyard Kipling"s unique gifts are nowhere shown more conspicuously than in his is as spirited and fascinating as the first. "The Miracle of Purun Bhagat" is a wonderful study of Indian religious life, and also of the power of gentleness in taming all the creatures of the forest, whilst "Letting in the Jungle," which describes the way in which Mowgli led the elephants to devastate the lands of the man pack who had served him so cruelly; the alligator"s terrible story, and "Red Dog," the record of a life and death encounter with a pack of wild dogs, are full of spirit and make a reader"s pulses beat high. Mr. Rudyard Kipling"s unique gifts are nowhere shown more conspicuously than in his Jungle Books. Jungle Books.
-January 1896 Atlantic Monthly In all the expressions of appreciation that Mr. Kipling"s Jungle Books Jungle Books still arouse, I wonder if any one has yet pointed out the change these works have quietly wrought in our att.i.tude toward the rest of the animal world? Before these books, and since Darwin, we have believed, or have known vaguely that we ought to believe, that our "in"ards," both of body and of brain, are very much the same kind of "in"ards" as those of a cat or a monkey; and we have perhaps prided ourselves on our openness of mind in being ready to accept such lowly relatives without repugnance. What Mr. Kipling has done for us is to make us really know and feel that the larger part of our mental composition is of the same substance as that of our cousins the animals, with a certain superstructure of reasoning faculty which has enabled us to become their masters. Mr. Kipling, indeed, has expounded relationships in the psychology of the animal world as far-reaching as those which Darwin discovered in its morphology. still arouse, I wonder if any one has yet pointed out the change these works have quietly wrought in our att.i.tude toward the rest of the animal world? Before these books, and since Darwin, we have believed, or have known vaguely that we ought to believe, that our "in"ards," both of body and of brain, are very much the same kind of "in"ards" as those of a cat or a monkey; and we have perhaps prided ourselves on our openness of mind in being ready to accept such lowly relatives without repugnance. What Mr. Kipling has done for us is to make us really know and feel that the larger part of our mental composition is of the same substance as that of our cousins the animals, with a certain superstructure of reasoning faculty which has enabled us to become their masters. Mr. Kipling, indeed, has expounded relationships in the psychology of the animal world as far-reaching as those which Darwin discovered in its morphology.
-June 1898
Edmund Wilson
In the Jungle Books, Jungle Books, the animal characters are each one all of a piece, though in their ensemble they still provide a variety, and they are dominated by a "Law of the Jungle," which lays down their duties and rights. The animals have organized the Jungle, and the Jungle is presided over by Mowgli in his function of forest ranger, so that it falls into its subsidiary place in the larger organization of the Empire. Yet the the animal characters are each one all of a piece, though in their ensemble they still provide a variety, and they are dominated by a "Law of the Jungle," which lays down their duties and rights. The animals have organized the Jungle, and the Jungle is presided over by Mowgli in his function of forest ranger, so that it falls into its subsidiary place in the larger organization of the Empire. Yet the Jungle Books Jungle Books (written in Vermont) are not artistically off the track; the element of obvious allegory is not out of place in these fairy tales. (written in Vermont) are not artistically off the track; the element of obvious allegory is not out of place in these fairy tales.
-from Atlantic Monthly Atlantic Monthly (March 1941) (March 1941)
George Orwell It is no use pretending that Kipling"s view of life, as a whole, can be accepted or even forgiven by any civilized person. It is no use claiming, for instance, that when Kipling describes a British soldier beating a "n.i.g.g.e.r" with a cleaning rod in order to get money out of him, he is acting merely as a reporter and does not necessarily approve what he describes. There is not the slightest sign anywhere in Kipling"s work that he disapproves of that kind of conduct-on the contrary, there is a definite strain of sadism in him, over and above the brutality which a writer of that type has to have. Kipling is a jingo imperialist, he is morally insensitive and aesthetically disgusting. It is better to start by admitting that, and then to try to find out why it is that he survives while the refined people who have sn.i.g.g.e.red at him seem to wear so badly.
-from Critical Essays Critical Essays (1946) (1946) QUESTIONS.
1. Can the provisions of nature"s "Law" be specified? What are they?2. Can you draw up from The Jungle Books The Jungle Books a list of what Kipling would consider sins? a list of what Kipling would consider sins?3. The Atlantic Monthly Atlantic Monthly posits that Kipling imposes a "superstructure of reasoning" upon Mowgli, which differentiates man from Darwin"s beasts. Yet Kipling"s "man," Mowgli, is quite simple. Also, it is the Bandar-log, the "Monkey People," who are most lawless and treacherous and impossible to like. Is it not odd that a Darwinian like Kipling would so represent humans and the animals that are closest to humans? How is Mowgli"s character developed differently from those of the animal characters? posits that Kipling imposes a "superstructure of reasoning" upon Mowgli, which differentiates man from Darwin"s beasts. Yet Kipling"s "man," Mowgli, is quite simple. Also, it is the Bandar-log, the "Monkey People," who are most lawless and treacherous and impossible to like. Is it not odd that a Darwinian like Kipling would so represent humans and the animals that are closest to humans? How is Mowgli"s character developed differently from those of the animal characters?4. In Civilization and Its Discontents Civilization and Its Discontents Sigmund Freud argues that civilization, which humans constructed to preserve themselves, has come to seem like a cage, and that we secretly yearn to see it crumble. Is this idea at work in Sigmund Freud argues that civilization, which humans constructed to preserve themselves, has come to seem like a cage, and that we secretly yearn to see it crumble. Is this idea at work in The Jungle Books? The Jungle Books? 5. George Orwell, a writer best remembered for his political disposition, reveals a singular distaste for Kipling in his essay. It is significant to note that Kipling"s numerous political writings were nowhere near as commercially successful as his literature for children. But are 5. George Orwell, a writer best remembered for his political disposition, reveals a singular distaste for Kipling in his essay. It is significant to note that Kipling"s numerous political writings were nowhere near as commercially successful as his literature for children. But are The Jungle Books The Jungle Books political after all? political after all?6. People with all kinds of att.i.tudes toward imperialism and racism have testified to Kipling"s ability to engross them and to let them experience a sense of freedom and release by proxy through his characters. How does he do it?
For Further Reading BIOGRAPHY.
Birkenhead, Frederick Winston Furneaux Smith, Earl of. Rudyard Kipling. Rudyard Kipling. New York: Random House, 1978. New York: Random House, 1978.
Carrington, Charles. Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Work Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Work. Revised edition. London: Macmillan, 1978.
Gilmour, David. The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling. The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling. London: John Murray, 2002. London: John Murray, 2002.
Harrison, James. Rudyard Kipling. Rudyard Kipling. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1982. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1982.
Lycett, Andrew. Rudyard Kipling. Rudyard Kipling. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1999. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1999.
Mallett, Phillip. Rudyard Kipling: A Literary Life. Rudyard Kipling: A Literary Life. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
Ricketts, Harry. The Unforgiving Minute: A Life of Rudyard Kipling. The Unforgiving Minute: A Life of Rudyard Kipling. London: Chatto and Windus, 1999. Published in the United States as London: Chatto and Windus, 1999. Published in the United States as Rudyard Kipling: A Life Rudyard Kipling: A Life, New York: Car-roll and Graf, 2001.
Wilson, Angus. The Strange Ride of Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Works. The Strange Ride of Rudyard Kipling: His Life and Works. New York: Viking Press, 1977. New York: Viking Press, 1977.
CRITICISM AND REFERENCE.
Gilbert, Elliot, ed. Kipling and the Critics. Kipling and the Critics. New York: New York University Press, 1965. New York: New York University Press, 1965.
Green, Roger Lancelyn. Kipling and the Children. Kipling and the Children. London: Elek Books, 1965. London: Elek Books, 1965.
, ed. Kipling: The Critical Heritage. Kipling: The Critical Heritage. New York: Barnes and n.o.ble, 1971. New York: Barnes and n.o.ble, 1971.
Gross, John, ed. The Age of Kipling The Age of Kipling. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972.
Kemp, Sandra. Kipling"s Hidden Narratives. Kipling"s Hidden Narratives. Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 1988. Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 1988.
Mason, Philip. Kipling: The Gla.s.s, the Shadow and the Fire. Kipling: The Gla.s.s, the Shadow and the Fire. London: Jonathan Cape, 1975. London: Jonathan Cape, 1975.
McBratney, John. Imperial Subjects, Imperial s.p.a.ce: Rudyard Kipling"s Fiction of the Native-Born. Imperial Subjects, Imperial s.p.a.ce: Rudyard Kipling"s Fiction of the Native-Born. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2002. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2002.
Moore-Gilbert, B. J. Kipling and "Orientalism." Kipling and "Orientalism." London: Croom Helm, 1986. London: Croom Helm, 1986.
Randall, Don. Kipling"s Imperial Boy: Adolescence and Cultural Hybridity. Kipling"s Imperial Boy: Adolescence and Cultural Hybridity. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
OTHER WORKS CITED IN THE INTRODUCTION.
Arnold, Matthew. Culture and Anarchy. Culture and Anarchy. 1869. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994. 1869. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994.
Auden, W. H. "In Memory of W. B. Yeats." In The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden. The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden. New York: Random House, 1945. New York: Random House, 1945.
James, Henry. Selected Letters of Henry James to Edmund Gosse, 1882-1915: A Literary Friendship Selected Letters of Henry James to Edmund Gosse, 1882-1915: A Literary Friendship. Edited by Rayburn S. Moore. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988.
Kipling, Rudyard. The Letters of Rudyard Kipling. The Letters of Rudyard Kipling. Vol. 2. Edited by Thomas Pinney. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1990. Vol. 2. Edited by Thomas Pinney. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1990.
. Plain Tales from the Hills. Plain Tales from the Hills. New York: Doubleday, Page, 1915. New York: Doubleday, Page, 1915.
. "In the Rukh." In Many Inventions. Many Inventions. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1893. New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1893.
. Something of Myself and Other Autobiographical Writings. Something of Myself and Other Autobiographical Writings. 1937. Edited by Thomas Pinney. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Includes "Baa Baa, Black Sheep." 1937. Edited by Thomas Pinney. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Includes "Baa Baa, Black Sheep."
Naipaul, V S. An Area of Darkness. An Area of Darkness. New York: Vintage Books, 2002. New York: Vintage Books, 2002.
Orwell, George. "Rudyard Kipling." In Collected Essays. Collected Essays. London: Heinemann, 1966. London: Heinemann, 1966.
Rushdie, Salman. East, West: East, West: Stories. New York: Vintage, 1995. Stories. New York: Vintage, 1995.
Trilling, Lionel. The Liberal Imagination: Essays on Literature and Society. The Liberal Imagination: Essays on Literature and Society. 1950. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979. 1950. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979.
Wilson, Edmund. "The Kipling That n.o.body Read." In The Wound and the Bow, The Wound and the Bow, 1941. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947. 1941. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947.
a In central India, in the Seoni district of Madhya Pradesh. Kipling never visited this region.
b Kipling gets this name from his father"s 1891 work Beast and Man in India, Beast and Man in India, in which a parasite is called in which a parasite is called tabaqi kutta, tabaqi kutta, a Hindi phrase meaning "one who sponges" (literally, "dish dog"). a Hindi phrase meaning "one who sponges" (literally, "dish dog").
c Rabies (Hindi).
d Or Wainganga; river in the Seoni district.
e Or sambar, a large Asian deer.
f Kipling invented this name. Most of the other creatures in the Mowgli stories are named with Hindi words that describe what they are.
g Alone (Hindi).
h Bear (Hindi).
i Pard, or panther (Gondi, a language spoken in south-central India).
j Kipling invented this name.
k Kipling suggests that Kaa is an Indian (rock) python.
l When shedding its skin, a snake secretes a milky lubricant that causes its eyes to cloud over and its vision to become temporarily impaired.
m Kipling had seen such ruins of ancient cities during his travels in India.
n The priest"s mark has religious significance.
o Or Kanhiwara; town in the Seoni district.
p British musket made in the Tower of London a.r.s.enal during the late eighteenth century, originally for military use.
q It is a Hindu custom to give offerings of milk to cobras.
r An avatar (manifestation) of the Hindu G.o.d Vishnu, the sustainer of the world, who represents courage and chivalry.
s A ladies" chain is a movement in country dancing in which the women weave among the men.
t Equivalent of one-sixteenth of a rupee, a paltry sum.
u Basil (Hindi).
v Reference to Kipling"s 1893 story "In the Rukh," about Mowgli"s return to the world of men.
w According to H. W. Elliott (see endnote 4), this is a Russian name for an adult male seal.
x Kipling derives this description of the seals" fight for nursery s.p.a.ce from Elliott"s accounts.
y According to Elliott, the Russian name for a mother seal.
z Beach on St. Paul (see endnote 5) where seals breed.
aa One of the Pribilof Islands, much smaller than St. Paul.
ab According to Elliott, the Russian name for a seal pup.
ac The Juan Fernandez Islands are a group of three islands in the South Pacific, west of Chile.
ad Reference to bioluminescent plankton, small plant and animal organisms that float or drift in the sea and emit light at night, creating what are known as "phosph.o.r.escent seas."
ae Kotick is speaking Russian (as do the seabirds on p. 91).
af Kipling derived this name from the Russian name for a walrus.
ag Steller"s Sea Cow, a species related to manatees and dugongs, was long extinct at the time Kipling was writing.
ah In the southern Indian Ocean.
ai Mas Afuera is one of the Juan Fernandez Islands.
aj One of the Commander, or Komandorski, Islands in the southwestern Bering Sea.
ak Kipling is describing Steller"s Sea Cow. The Frog-Footman, a character in chapter 6 of Lewis Carroll"s Alice"s Adventures in Wonderland Alice"s Adventures in Wonderland (1865), opens the door of the d.u.c.h.ess"s house. (1865), opens the door of the d.u.c.h.ess"s house.
al Cobra (Hindi).