_Private._
_11 C.H. Terrace, May 26, "58._--I have this morning received Sir James Graham"s reply, and I have seen Lord Aberdeen before and since. Their counsel has been given in no narrow or unfriendly spirit. It is, however, indecisive, and leaves upon me the responsibility which they would have been glad if it had been in their power to remove. I must therefore adhere to the reply which I gave to Mr. Walpole on Sat.u.r.day; for I have not seen, and I do not see, a prospect of public advantage or of material accession to your strength, from my entering your government single-handed.
Had it been in your power to raise fully the question whether those who were formerly your colleagues, could again be brought into political relation with you, I should individually have thought it to be for the public good that, under the present circ.u.mstances of the country, such a scheme should be considered deliberately and in a favourable spirit. But I neither know that this is in your power, nor can I feel very sanguine hopes that the obstacles in the way of this proposal on the part of those whom it would embrace, could be surmounted. Lord Aberdeen is the person who could best give a dispa.s.sionate and weighty opinion on that subject. For me the question, confined as it is to myself, is a narrow one, and I am bound to say that I arrive without doubt at the result.
REFUSAL
"I hope and trust," said Graham, when he knew what Mr. Gladstone had done, "that you have decided rightly; my judgment inclined the other way. I should be sorry if your letter to Lord Derby led him to make any more extended proposal. It could not possibly succeed, as matters now stand; and the abortive attempt would be injurious to him. The reconstruction of the fossil remains of the old Peel party is a hopeless task. No human power can now reanimate it with the breath of life; it is decomposed into atoms and will be remembered only as a happy accident, while it lasted."[374]
IV
SUEZ Ca.n.a.l
In one remarkable debate of this summer the solitary statesman descended from his pillar. Now was the time of the memorable scheme for the construction of the Suez Ca.n.a.l, that first emanated from the French group of Saint Simonian visionaries in the earlier half of the century.
Their dream had taken shape in the fertile and persevering genius of Lesseps, and was at this time the battle-ground of engineers, statesmen, and diplomatists in every country in Europe. For fifteen years the British government had used all their influence at Constantinople to prevent the Sultan from sanctioning the project. In June a motion of protest was made in the House of Commons. Lord Palmerston persisted that the scheme was the greatest bubble that ever was imposed upon the credulity and simplicity of the people of this country; the public meetings on its behalf were got up by a pack of foreign projectors; traffic by the railway would always beat traffic by steamer through the ca.n.a.l; it would be a step towards the dismemberment of the Turkish empire; it would tend to dismember our own empire by opening a pa.s.sage between the Mediterranean and the Indian ocean, which would be at the command of other nations and not at ours. Away, then, with such a sacrifice of the interest of Great Britain to philanthropic schemes and philosophic reveries! So much for the sound practical man. Mr. Gladstone followed. Don"t let us, he said, have governments and ex-governments coming down to instruct us here on bubble schemes. As a commercial project, let the Suez Ca.n.a.l stand or fall upon commercial grounds. With close reasoning, he argued against the proposition that the ca.n.a.l would tend to sever Turkey from Egypt. As to possible danger to our own interests, was it not a ca.n.a.l that would fall within the control of the strongest maritime power in Europe? And what could that power be but ourselves? Finally, what could be more unwise than to present ourselves to the world as the opponents of a scheme on the face of it beneficial to mankind, on no better ground than remote and contingent danger to interests of our own, with the alleged interest of Turkey merely thrust hypocritically in for the purpose of justifying a policy purely narrow-minded and wholly selfish? The majority against the motion was large, as it was in the case of the seven cardinals against Galileo.
Still the ca.n.a.l was made, with some very considerable consequences that were not foreseen either by those who favoured it or those who mocked it as a bubble. M. de Lesseps wrote to Mr. Gladstone from Constantinople that the clearness of his speech had enabled him to use it with good effect in his negotiations with the Porte. "Your eloquent words, the authority of your name, and the consideration that attaches to your character, have already contributed much and will contribute more still to hinder the darkening and complication of a question of itself perfectly clear and simple, and to avoid the troubling of the relations between two countries of which it is the natural mission to hold aloft _together_ the flag of modern civilisation."
Mr. Gladstone took an active interest in the various measures--some of them extremely singular--proposed by Mr. Disraeli for the transfer of the government of India from the Company to the crown. Writing early in the year to Sir James Graham he argued that their object should be steadily and vigorously to resist all attempts at creating a monster military and civil patronage, and to insist upon a real check on the Indian minister. He had much conversation with Mr. Bright--not then an intimate acquaintance--on the difficulty of the problem to govern a people by a people. The two agreed strongly as to one prominent possibility of mischief: they both distrusted the discretion confided to the Indian minister in the use of the Indian army. Mr. Gladstone set a mark upon the bill by carrying a clause to provide that the Indian army should not be employed beyond the frontiers of India without the permission of parliament. This clause he privately hoped would "afford a standing-ground from which a control might be exercised on future Palmerstons."
FOOTNOTES:
[369] The portion within brackets is from a letter of Mr. Gladstone"s to Lady Lyndhurst, Aug. 31, 1883, and he continues: "I have often compared Lord Lyndhurst in my own mind with the five other lord chancellors who since his time have been my colleagues in cabinet: much to the disadvantage in certain respects of some of them. Once I remember in the Peel cabinet the conversation happened to touch some man (there are such) who was too fond of making difficulties. Peel said to your husband, "That is not your way, Lyndhurst." Of all the intellects I have ever known, his, I think, worked with the least friction."
[370] "Happily for the reputation of the House, but unhappily for the ministry, the debate a.s.sumed once more, with Gladstone"s eloquence, a statesmanlike character. The foremost speaker of the House showed himself worthy of his reputation ... much as there was to lament in the too radical tone of his often finespun argumentation. His thundering periods were received with thundering echoes of applause."--Vitzthum, _St. Petersburg and London_, i. p. 273.
[371] See _Spectator_, May 8, 1858.
[372] _Press_, April 7, 1858.
[373] I wish to state that it is by the courtesy of hon. gentlemen that I occupy a seat on this (the ministerial) side of the House, although I am no adherent of Her Majesty"s government. By no engagement, express or implied, am I their supporter. On the contrary, my sympathies and opinions are with the liberal party sitting on the opposite side of the House, and from recent kind communications I have resumed those habits of friendly intercourse and confidential communication with my n.o.ble friend (Lord John Russell) which formerly existed between us.--_May_ 20, 1858.
[374] "I wish," said Mr. Disraeli to Bishop Wilberforce in 1862, "you could have induced Gladstone to join Lord Derby"s government when Lord Ellenborough resigned in 1858. It was not my fault that he did not: I almost went on my knees to him."--_Life_, iii. p. 70.
Vitzthum reports a conversation with Mr. Disraeli in January 1858, of a different tenor: "We are at all times ready," he said, "to take back this deserter, but only if he surrenders unconditionally."--Vitzthum, i.
p. 269.
CHAPTER X
THE IONIAN ISLANDS
(_1858-1859_)
The world is now taking an immense interest in Greek affairs, and does not seem to know why. But there are very good reasons for it.
Greece is a centre of life, and the only possible centre for the Archipelago, and its immediate neighbourhood. But it is vain to think of it as a centre from which light and warmth can proceed, until it has attained to a tolerable organisation, political and economical. I believe in the capacity of the people to receive the boon.--GLADSTONE (1862).
PROPOSAL FROM BULWER
At the beginning of October, while on a visit to Lord Aberdeen at Haddo, Mr. Gladstone was amazed by a letter from the secretary of state for the colonies--one of the two famous writers of romance then in Lord Derby"s cabinet--which opened to him the question of undertaking a special mission to the Ionian islands. This, said Bulwer Lytton, would be to render to the crown a service that no other could do so well, and that might not inharmoniously blend with his general fame as scholar and statesman. "To reconcile a race that speaks the Greek language to the science of practical liberty seemed to me a task that might be a n.o.ble episode in your career." The origin of an invitation so singular is explained by Phillimore:--
_November_ 2nd, 1858.--Lord Carnarvon (then under-secretary at the colonial office) sent an earnest letter to me to come to the C.O.
and advise with Rogers and himself as to drawing the commission. I met Bulwer Lytton there, overflowing with civility. The offer to Gladstone had arisen as I expected from Lord C., and he had told B.
L. the conversation which he (C.) and I had together in the summer, in which I told Lord C. that I thought Gladstone would accept a mission extraordinary to Naples.... I risked without authority from G. this communication. Lord C. bore it in mind, and from this suggestion of mine sprang in fact this offer. So Lord C. said to me.
Lord Malmesbury very sensibly observed that to send Mr. Gladstone to Naples was out of the question, in view of his famous letters to Lord Aberdeen. To the new proposal Mr. Gladstone replied that his first impulse on any call from a minister of the crown to see him on public business, would be to place himself at the minister"s disposal. The interview did not occur for a week or two. Papers were sent from the colonial office to Hawarden, long letters followed from the secretary of state, and Mr. Gladstone took time to consider. The const.i.tution of the Ionian islands had long been working uneasily, and what the colonial secretary invited him to undertake was an inquiry on the spot into our relations there, and into long-standing embarra.s.sments that seemed to be rapidly coming to a head. Sir John Young, then lord high commissioner of the Ionian islands, had been with him at Eton and at Oxford, besides being a Peelite colleague in parliament, and Mr. Gladstone was not inclined to be the instrument of indicating disparagement of his friend.
Then, moreover, he was in favour of "a very liberal policy" in regard to the Ionian islands, and possibly the cabinet did not agree to a very liberal policy. As for personal interest and convenience, he was not disposed to raise any difficulty in such a case.
The Peelite colleagues whose advice he sought were all, with the single exception of the Duke of Newcastle, more or less unconditionally adverse. Lord Aberdeen (October 8) admitted that Mr. Gladstone"s name, acquirements, and conciliatory character might operate powerfully on the Ionians; still many of them were false and artful, and the best of them little better than children. "It is clear," he said, "that Bulwer has sought to allure you with vague declarations and the attractions of Homeric propensities.... I doubt if Homer will be a _cheval de bataille_ sufficiently strong to carry you safely through the intricacies of this enterprise." The sagacious Graham also warned him that little credit would be gained by success, while failure would be attended by serious inconveniences: in any case to quell "a storm in a teapot" was no occupation worthy of his powers and position. Sidney Herbert was strong that governments were getting more and more into the bad habit of delegating their own business to other people; he doubted success, and expressed his hearty wish that we could be quit of the protectorate altogether, and could hand the islands bodily over to Greece, to which by blood, language, religion, and geography they belonged.
I have said that these adverse views were almost unqualified, and such qualification as existed was rather remarkable. "The only part of the affair I should regard with real pleasure," wrote Lord Aberdeen, "would be the means it might afford you of drawing closer to the government, and of naturally establishing yourself in a more suitable position; for in spite of Homer and Ulysses, your Ionian work will by no means be _tanti_ in itself." Graham took the same point: "An approximation to the government may be fairly sought or admitted by you. But this should take place on higher grounds." Thus, though he was now in fact unconsciously on the eve of his formal entry into a liberal cabinet, expectations still survived that he might re-join his old party.
As might have been expected, the wanderings of Ulysses and the geography of Homer prevailed in Mr. Gladstone"s mind over the counsels of parliamentary Nestors. Besides the ancient heroes, there was the fascination of the orthodox church, so peculiar and so irresistible for the anglican school to which Mr. Gladstone belonged. Nor must we leave out of account the pa.s.sion for public business so often allied with the student"s temperament; the desire of the politician out of work for something definite to do; Mr. Gladstone"s keen relish at all times for any foreign travel that came in his way; finally, and perhaps strongest of all, the fact that his wife"s health had been much shaken by the death of her sister, Lady Lyttelton, and the doctors were advising change of scene, novel interests, and a southern climate. His decision was very early a foregone conclusion. So his doubting friends could only wish him good fortune. Graham said, "If your hand be destined to lay the foundation of a Greek empire on the ruins of the Ottoman, no hand can be more worthy, no work more glorious. _Recidiva manu posuissem Pergama_ was a n.o.ble aspiration;[375] with you it may be realised."
MISSION ACCEPTED
He hastened to enlist the services as secretary to his commission of Mr.
Lacaita, whose friendship he had first made seven years before, as we have seen, amid the sinister tribunals and squalid dungeons of Naples.
For dealings with the Greco-Italian population of the islands he seemed the very man. "As regards Greek," Mr. Gladstone wrote to him, "you are one of the few persons to whom one gives credit for knowing everything, and I a.s.sumed on this ground that you had a knowledge of ancient Greek, such as would enable you easily to acquire the _kind_ of acquaintance with the modern form, such as is, I presume, desirable. That is my own predicament; with the additional disadvantage of our barbarous English p.r.o.nunciation." Accompanied by Mrs. Gladstone and their eldest daughter, and with Mr. Arthur Gordon, the son of Lord Aberdeen, and now, after long service to the state, known as Lord Stanmore, for private secretary, Mr. Gladstone left England on November 8, 1858, and he returned to it on the 8th of March 1859.
II
THE IONIAN CASE
The Ionian case was this. By a treaty made at Paris in November 1815, between Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, the seven islands--scattered along the coast from Epiros to the extreme south of the Morea--were const.i.tuted into a single free and independent state under the name of the United States of the Ionian Islands, and this state was placed under the immediate and exclusive protection of Great Britain. The Powers only thought of keeping the islands out of more dubious hands, and cared little or not at all about conferring any advantage upon either us or the Ionians. The States were to regulate their own internal organisation, and Great Britain was "to employ a particular solicitude with regard to the legislation and general administration of those states," and was to appoint a lord high commissioner to reside there with all necessary powers and authorities.
The Duke of Wellington foretold that it would prove "a tough and unprofitable job," and so in truth it did. A const.i.tutional charter in 1817 formed a system of government that soon became despotic enough to satisfy Metternich himself. The scheme has been justly described as a singularly clever piece of work, appearing to give much while in fact giving nothing at all. It contained a decorous collection of chapters, sections, and articles imposing enough in their outer aspect, but in actual operation the whole of them reducible to a single clause enabling the high commissioner to do whatever he pleased.
This rough but not ill-natured despotism lasted for little more than thirty years, and then in 1849, under the influence of the great upheaval of 1848, it was changed into a system of more popular and democratic build. The old Venetians, when for a couple of centuries they were masters in this region, laid it down that the islanders must be kept with their teeth drawn and their claws clipped. Bread and the stick, said Father Paul, that is what they want. This view prevailed at the colonial office, and maxims of Father Paul Sarpi"s sort, incongruously combined with a paper const.i.tution, worked as ill as possible. Mr. Gladstone always applied to the new system of 1849 Charles Buller"s figure, of first lighting the fire and then stopping up the chimney. The stick may be wholesome, and local self-government may be wholesome, but in combination or rapid alternation they are apt to work nothing but mischief either in Ionian or any other islands. Sir Charles Napier--the Napier of Scinde--who had been Resident in Cephalonia thirty years before, in Byron"s closing days, describes the richer cla.s.ses as lively and agreeable; the women as having both beauty and wit, but of little education; the poor as hardy, industrious, and intelligent--all full of pleasant humour and vivacity, with a striking resemblance, says Napier, to his countrymen, the Irish. The upper cla.s.s was mainly Italian in origin, and willingly threw all the responsibility for affairs on the British government. The official cla.s.s, more numerous in proportion to population than in any country in Europe, scrambled for the petty salaries of paltry posts allotted by popular election. Since 1849 they had increased by twenty-five per cent., and were now one in a hundred of the inhabitants. The clergy in a pa.s.sive way took part with the demagogues. Men of ability and sense were not wanting, but being unorganised, discouraged, and saturated with distrust, they made no effort to stem the jobbery, corruption, waste, going on around them.
Roads, piers, aqueducts, and other monuments of the British protectorate reared before 1849, were falling to pieces. Taxes were indifferently collected. Transgressors of local law went unpunished. In ten years the deficit in the revenue had amounted to nearly 100,000, or two-thirds of a year"s income. The cultivators of the soil figured in official reports as naturally well affected, and only wishing to grow their currants and their olives in peace and quietness. But they were extremely poor, and they were ignorant and superst.i.tious, and being all these things it was inevitable that they should nurse discontent with their government.
Whoever wanted their votes knew that the way to get them was to denounce the Englishman as [Greek: heterodoxos kai xenos], heretic, alien, and tyrant.
There was a senate of six members, chosen by the high commissioner from the a.s.sembly. The forty-two members of the a.s.sembly met below galleries that held a thousand persons, and nothing made their seats and salaries so safe as round declamations from the floor to the audience above, on the greatness of the h.e.l.lenic race and the need for union with the Greek kingdom. The munic.i.p.al officer in charge of education used to set as a copy for the children, a prayer that panh.e.l.lenic concord might drive the Turks out of Greece and the English out of the seven islands.
Cephalonia exceeded the rest of the group both in population and in vehemence of character, while Zante came first of all in the industry and liveliness of its people.[376] These two islands were the main scene and source of difficulty. In Cephalonia nine years before the date with which we are now dealing, an agrarian rising had occurred more like a bad whiteboy outrage than a national rebellion, and it was suppressed with cruel rigour by the high commissioner of the day. Twenty-two people had been hanged, three hundred or more had been flogged, most of them without any species of judicial investigation. The fire-raisings and destruction of houses and vineyards were of a fierce brutality to match.
These Ionian atrocities were the proceedings with which Prince Schwarzenberg had taunted Lord Aberdeen by way of rejoinder to Mr.
Gladstone"s letters on barbarous misgovernment in Naples, and the feelings that they had roused were still smouldering. Half a dozen newspapers existed, all of them vehemently and irreconcilably unionist, though all controlled by members of the legislative a.s.sembly who had taken an oath at the beginning of each parliament to respect and maintain the const.i.tutional rights of the protecting sovereign. The liberty of unlicensed printing, however, had been subject to a pretty stringent check. By virtue of what was styled a power of high police, the lord high commissioner was able at his own will and pleasure to tear away from home, occupation, and livelihood anybody that he chose, and the high police found its commonest objects in the editors of newspapers. An obnoxious leading article was not infrequently followed by deportation to some small and barren rock, inhabited by a handful of fishermen. Not Cherubim and Seraphim, said Mr. Gladstone, could work such a system. A British corporal with all the patronage in his hands, said another observer, would get on better than the greatest and wisest statesman since Pericles, if he had not the patronage. It was little wonder that a distracted lord high commissioner, to adopt the similes of the florid secretary of state, should one day send home a picture like Salvator"s Ma.s.sacre of the Innocents, or Michel Angelo"s Last Judgment, and the next day recall the swains of Albano at repose in the landscapes of Claude; should one day advise his chiefs to wash their hands of the Ionians, and on the morrow should hint that perhaps the best thing would be by a bold _coup d"etat_ to sweep away the const.i.tution.[377]
III
THE STOLEN DESPATCH
Immediately after Mr. Gladstone had started, what the secretary of state described as the most serious misfortune conceivable happened. A despatch was stolen from the pigeon-holes of the colonial office, and a morning paper printed it. It had been written home some eighteen months before by Sir John Young, and in it he advised his government, with the a.s.sent of the contracting powers, to hand over either the whole of the seven islands to Greece, or else at least the five southern islands, while transforming Corfu and its little satellite of Paxo into a British colony. It was true that a few days later he had written a private letter, wholly withdrawing this advice and subst.i.tuting for it the exact opposite, the suppression namely of such freedom as the islanders possessed. This second fact the public did not know, nor would the knowledge of it have made any difference. The published despatch stood on record, and say what they would, the startling impression could not be effaced. Well might Lytton call it an inconceivable misfortune. It made Austria uneasy, it perturbed France, and it irritated Russia, all of them seeing in Mr. Gladstone"s mission a first step towards the policy recommended in the despatch. In the b.r.e.a.s.t.s of the islanders it kindled intense excitement, and diversified a chronic disorder by a sharp access of fever. It made Young"s position desperate, though he was slow to see it, and practically it brought the business of the high commissioner extraordinary to nought before it had even begun.
He learned the disaster, for disaster it was, at Vienna, and appears to have faced it with the same rigorous firmness and self-command that some of us have beheld at untoward moments long after. The amba.s.sador told him that he ought to see the Austrian minister. With Count Buol he had a long interview accordingly, and a.s.sured him that his mission had no concern with any question of Ionian annexation whether partial or total.