The first step which we must take in our method is to _call_ to the pupil. We call now to his attention, now to his interior life, now to the life he leads with others. Making a comparison which must not be taken in a literal sense,--it is necessary to proceed as in experimental psychology or anthropology when one makes an experiment,--that is, after having prepared the instrument (to which in this case the environment may correspond) we prepare the subject. Considering the method as a whole, we must begin our work by preparing the child for the forms of social life, and we must attract his attention to these forms.
In the schedule which we outlined when we established the first "Children"s House," but which we have never followed entirely, (a sign that a schedule in which the material is distributed in arbitrary fashion is not adapted to the regime of liberty) we begin the day with a series of exercises of practical life, and I must confess that these exercises were the only part of the programme which proved thoroughly stationary. These exercises were such a success that they formed the beginning of the day in all of the "Children"s Houses." First:
Cleanliness.
Order.
Poise.
Conversation.
As soon as the children arrive at school we make an inspection for cleanliness. If possible, this should be carried on in the presence of the mothers, but their attention should not be called to it directly. We examine the hands, the nails, the neck, the ears, the face, the teeth; and care is given to the tidiness of the hair. If any of the garments are torn or soiled or ripped, if the b.u.t.tons are lacking, or if the shoes are not clean, we call the attention of the child to this. In this way, the children become accustomed to observing themselves and take an interest in their own appearance.
The children in our "Children"s Houses" are given a bath in turn, but this, of course, can not be done daily. In the cla.s.s, however, the teacher, by using a little washstand with small pitchers and basins, teaches the children to take a partial bath: for example, they learn how to wash their hands and clean their nails. Indeed, sometimes we teach them how to take a foot-bath. They are shown especially how to wash their ears and eyes with great care. They are taught to brush their teeth and rinse their mouths carefully. In all of this, we call their attention to the different parts of the body which they are washing, and to the different means which we use in order to cleanse them: clear water for the eyes, soap and water for the hands, the brush for the teeth, etc. We teach the big ones to help the little ones, and, so, encourage the younger children to learn quickly to take care of themselves.
After this care of their persons, we put on the little ap.r.o.ns. The children are able to put these on themselves, or, with the help of each other. Then we begin our visit about the schoolroom. We notice if all of the various materials are in order and if they are clean. The teacher shows the children how to clean out the little corners where dust has acc.u.mulated, and shows them how to use the various objects necessary in cleaning a room,--dust-cloths, dust-brushes, little brooms, etc. All of this, when the children are allowed _to do it by themselves_, is very quickly accomplished. Then the children go each to his own place. The teacher explains to them that the normal position is for each child to be seated in his own place, in silence, with his feet together on the floor, his hands resting on the table, and his head erect. In this way she teaches them poise and equilibrium. Then she has them rise on their feet in order to sing the hymn, teaching them that in rising and sitting down it is not necessary to be noisy. In this way the children learn to move about the furniture with poise and with care. After this we have a series of exercises in which the children learn to move gracefully, to go and come, to salute each other, to lift objects carefully, to receive various objects from each other politely. The teacher calls attention with little exclamations to a child who is clean, a room which is well ordered, a cla.s.s seated quietly, a graceful movement, etc.
From such a starting point we proceed to the free teaching. That is, the teacher will no longer make comments to the children, directing them how to move from their seats, etc., she will limit herself to correcting the disordered movements.
After the directress has talked in this way about the att.i.tude of the children and the arrangement of the room, she invites the children to talk with her. She questions them concerning what they have done the day before, regulating her inquiries in such a way that the children need not report the intimate happenings of the family but their individual behaviour, their games, att.i.tude to parents, etc. She will ask if they have been able to go up the stairs without getting them muddy, if they have spoken politely to their friends who pa.s.sed, if they have helped their mothers, if they have shown in their family what they have learned at school, if they have played in the street, etc. The conversations are longer on Monday after the vacation, and on that day the children are invited to tell what they have done with the family; if they have gone away from home, whether they have eaten things not usual for children to eat, and if this is the case we urge them not to eat these things and try to teach them that they are bad for them. Such conversations as these encourage the _unfolding_ or development of language and are of great educational value, since the directress can prevent the children from recounting happenings in the house or in the neighbourhood, and can select, instead, topics which are adapted to pleasant conversation, and in this way can teach the children those things which it is desirable to talk about; that is, things with which we occupy ourselves in life, public events, or things which have happened in the different houses, perhaps, to the children themselves--as baptism, birthday parties, any of which may serve for occasional conversation. Things of this sort will encourage children to describe, themselves. After this morning talk we pa.s.s to the various lessons.
CHAPTER VIII
REFECTION--THE CHILD"S DIET
In connection with the exercises of practical life, it may be fitting to consider the matter of refection.
In order to protect the child"s development, especially in neighbourhoods where standards of child hygiene are not yet prevalent in the home, it would be well if a large part at least of the child"s diet could be entrusted to the school. It is well known to-day that the diet must be adapted to the physical nature of the child; and as the medicine of children is not the medicine of adults in reduced doses, so the diet must not be that of the adult in lesser quant.i.tative proportions. For this reason I should prefer that even in the "Children"s Houses" which are situated in tenements and from which little ones, being at home, can go up to eat with the family, school refection should be inst.i.tuted.
Moreover, even in the case of rich children, school refection would always be advisable until a scientific course in cooking shall have introduced into the wealthier families the habit of specialising in children"s food.
The diet of little children must be rich in fats and sugar: the first for reserve matter and the second for plastic tissue. In fact, sugar is a stimulant to tissues in the process of formation.
As for the _form_ of preparation, it is well that the alimentary substances should always be minced, because the child has not yet the capacity for completely masticating the food, and his stomach is still incapable of fulfilling the function of mincing food matter.
Consequently, soups, purees, and meat b.a.l.l.s, should const.i.tute the ordinary form of dish for the child"s table.
The nitrogenous diet for a child from two or three years of age ought to be const.i.tuted chiefly of milk and eggs, but after the second year broths are also to be recommended. After three years and a half meat can be given; or, in the case of poor children, vegetables. Fruits are also to be recommended for children.
Perhaps a detailed summary on child diet may be useful, especially for mothers.
_Method of Preparing Broth for Little Children._ (Age three to six; after that the child may use the common broth of the family.) The quant.i.ty of meat should correspond to 1 gramme for every cubic centimetre of broth and should be put in cold water. No aromatic herbs should be used, the only wholesome condiment being salt. The meat should be left to boil for two hours. Instead of removing the grease from the broth it is well to add b.u.t.ter to it, or, in the case of the poor, a spoonful of olive oil; but subst.i.tutes for b.u.t.ter, such as margerine, etc., should never be used. The broth must be prepared _fresh_; it would be well, therefore, to put the meat on the fire two hours before the meal, because as soon as broth is cool there begins to take place a separation of chemical substances, which are injurious to the child and may easily cause diarrhea.
_Soups._ A very simple soup, and one to be highly recommended for children, is bread boiled in salt water or in broth and abundantly seasoned with oil. This is the cla.s.sic soup of poor children and an excellent means of nutrition. Very like this, is the soup which consists of little cubes of bread toasted in b.u.t.ter and allowed to soak in the broth which is itself fat with b.u.t.ter. Soups of grated bread also belong in this cla.s.s.
Pastine,[10] especially the glutinous pastine, which are of the same nature, are undoubtedly superior to the others for digestibility, but are accessible only to the privileged social cla.s.ses.
[10] Those very fine forms of vermicelli used in soups.
The poor should know how much more wholesome is a broth made from remnants of stale bread, than soups of coa.r.s.e spaghetti--often dry and seasoned with meat juice. Such soups are most indigestible for little children.
Excellent soups are those consisting of purees of vegetables (beans, peas, lentils). To-day one may find in the shops dried vegetables especially adapted for this sort of soups. Boiled in salt water, the vegetables are peeled, put to cool and pa.s.sed through a sieve (or simply compressed, if they are already peeled). b.u.t.ter is then added, and the paste is stirred slowly into the boiling water, care being taken that it dissolves and leaves no lumps.
Vegetable soups can also be seasoned with pork. Instead of broth, sugared milk may be the base of vegetable purees.
I strongly recommend for children a soup of rice boiled in broth or milk; also cornmeal broth, provided it be seasoned with abundant b.u.t.ter, but not with cheese. (The porridge form--polenta, really cornmeal mush, is to be highly recommended on account of the long cooking.)
The poorer cla.s.ses who have no meat-broth can feed their children equally well with soups of boiled bread and porridge seasoned with oil.
_Milk and Eggs._ These are foods which not only contain nitrogenous substances in an eminently digestible form, but they have the so-called _enzymes_ which facilitate a.s.similation into the tissues, and, hence, in a particular way, favour the growth of the child. And they answer so much the better this last most important condition if they are _fresh_ and _intact_, keeping in themselves, one may say, the life of the animals which produced them.
Milk fresh from the cow, and the egg while it is still warm, are a.s.similable to the highest degree. Cooking, on the other hand, makes the milk and eggs lose their special conditions of a.s.similability and reduces the nutritive power in them to the simple power of any nitrogenous substance.
To-day, consequently, there are being founded _special dairies for children_ where the milk produced is sterile; the rigorous cleanliness of the surroundings in which the milk-producing animals live, the sterilisation of the udder before milking, of the hands of the milker, and of the vessels which are to contain the milk, the hermetic sealing of these last, and the refrigerating bath immediately after the milking, if the milk is to be carried far,--otherwise it is well to drink it warm, procure a milk free from bacteria which, therefore, has no need of being sterilised by boiling, and which preserves intact its natural nutritive powers.
As much may be said of eggs; the best way of feeding them to a child is to take them still warm from the hen and have him eat them just as they are, and then digest them in the open air. But where this is not practicable, eggs must be chosen fresh, and barely heated in water, that is to say, prepared _a la coque_.
All other forms of preparation, milk-soup, omelettes, and so forth, do, to be sure, make of milk and eggs an excellent food, more to be recommended than others; but they take away the specific properties of a.s.similation which characterise them.
_Meat._ All meats are not adapted to children, and even their preparation must differ according to the age of the child. Thus, for example, children from three to five years of age ought to eat only more or less finely-ground meats, whereas at the age of five children are capable of grinding meat completely by mastication; at that time it is well to _teach the child accurately how to masticate_ because he has a tendency to swallow food quickly, which may produce indigestion and diarrhea.
This is another reason why school-refection in the "Children"s Houses"
would be a very serviceable as well as convenient inst.i.tution, as the whole diet of the child could then be rationally cared for in connection with the educative system of the Houses.
The meats most adapted to children are so-called white meats, that is, in the first place, chicken, then veal; also the light flesh of fish, (sole, pike, cod).
After the age of four, filet of beef may also be introduced into the diet, but never heavy and fat meats like that of the pig, the capon, the eel, the tunny, etc., which are to be _absolutely excluded_ along with mollusks and crustaceans, (oysters, lobsters), from the child"s diet.
Croquettes made of finely ground meat, grated bread, milk, and beaten eggs, and fried in b.u.t.ter, are the most wholesome preparation. Another excellent preparation is to mould into b.a.l.l.s the grated meat, with sweet fruit-preserve, and eggs beaten up with sugar.
At the age of five, the child may be given breast of roast fowl, and occasionally veal cutlet or filet of beef.
Boiled meat must never be given to the child, because meat is deprived of many stimulating and even nutritive properties by boiling and rendered less digestible.
_Nerve Feeding Substances._ Besides meat a child who has reached the age of four may be given fried brains and sweetbreads, to be combined, for example, with chicken croquettes.
_Milk Foods._ All cheeses are to be excluded from the child"s diet.
The only milk product suitable to children from three to six years of age is fresh b.u.t.ter.
_Custard._ Custard is also to be recommended provided it be _freshly prepared_, that is immediately before being eaten, and _with very fresh_ milk and eggs: if such conditions cannot be rigorously fulfilled, it is preferable to do without custard, which is not a necessity.
_Bread._ From what we have said about soups, it may be inferred that bread is an _excellent food_ for the child. It should be well selected; the crumb is not very digestible, but it can be utilised, when it is dry, to make a bread broth; but if one is to give the child simply a piece of bread to eat, it is well to offer him the crust, the end of the loaf. Bread sticks are excellent for those who can afford them.
Bread contains many nitrogenous substances and is very rich in starches, but is lacking in fats; and as the fundamental substances of diet are, as is well known, three in number, namely, proteids, (nitrogenous substances), starches, and fats, bread is not a complete food; it is necessary therefore to offer the child b.u.t.tered bread, which const.i.tutes a complete food and may be considered as a sufficient and complete breakfast.
_Green Vegetables._ Children must never eat raw vegetables, such as salads and greens, but only cooked ones; indeed they are not to be highly recommended either cooked or raw, with the exception of spinach which may enter with moderation into the diet of children.
Potatoes prepared in a puree with much b.u.t.ter form, however, an excellent complement of nutrition for children.