EDUCATION OF THE SENSES AND ILl.u.s.tRATIONS OF THE DIDACTIC MATERIAL: GENERAL SENSIBILITY; THE TACTILE, THERMIC, BARIC, AND STEREOGNOSTIC SENSES
The education of the tactile and the thermic senses go together, since the warm bath, and heat in general, render the tactile sense more acute.
Since to exercise the tactile sense it is necessary to _touch_, bathing the hands in warm water has the additional advantage of teaching the child a principle of cleanliness--that of not touching objects with hands that are not clean. I therefore apply the general notions of practical life, regarding the washing of the hands, care of the nails, to the exercises preparatory to the discrimination of tactile stimuli.
The limitation of the exercises of the tactile sense to the cushioned tips of the fingers, is rendered necessary by practical life. It must be made a necessary phase of _education_ because it prepares for a life in which man exercises and uses the tactile sense through the medium of these finger tips. Hence, I have the child wash his hands carefully with soap, in a little basin; and in another basin I have him rinse them in a bath of tepid water. Then I show him how to dry and rub his hands gently, in this way preparing for the regular bath. I next teach the child how to _touch_, that is, the manner in which he should touch surfaces. For this it is necessary to take the finger of the child and to draw _it very, very lightly_ over the surface.
Another particular of the technique is to teach the child to hold his eyes closed while he touches, encouraging him to do this by telling him that he will be able to feel the differences better, and so leading him to distinguish, without the help of sight, the change of contact. He will quickly learn, and will show that he enjoys the exercise. Often after the introduction of such exercises, it is a common thing to have a child come to you, and, closing his eyes, touch with great delicacy the palm of your hand or the cloth of your dress, especially any silken or velvet tr.i.m.m.i.n.gs. They do verily _exercise_ the tactile sense. They enjoy keenly touching any soft pleasant surface, and become exceedingly keen in discriminating between the differences in the sandpaper cards.
The Didactic Material consists of; _a_--a rectangular wooden board divided into two equal rectangles, one covered with very smooth paper, or having the wood polished until a smooth surface is obtained; the other covered with sandpaper, _b_--a tablet like the preceding covered with alternating strips of smooth paper and sandpaper.
I also make use of a collection of paper slips, varying through many grades from smooth, fine cardboard to coa.r.s.est sandpaper. The stuffs described elsewhere are also used in these lessons.
As to the Thermic Sense, I use a set of little metal bowls, which are filled with water at different degrees of temperature. These I try to measure with a thermometer, so that there may be two containing water of the same temperature.
[Ill.u.s.tration: THE CLOISTER SCHOOL OF THE FRANCISCAN NUNS IN ROME Children playing a game with tablets of coloured silk]
[Ill.u.s.tration: (A) GIRL TOUCHING A LETTER AND BOY TELLING OBJECTS BY WEIGHT.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: (B) ARRANGING TABLETS OF SILK IN THEIR CHROMATIC ORDER.
There are eight colours, and eight shades of each colour, making sixty-four gradations in all.]
I have designed a set of utensils which are to be made of very light metal, and filled with water. These have covers, and to each is attached a thermometer. The bowl touched from the outside gives the desired impression of heat.
I also have the children put their hands into cold, tepid, and warm water, an exercise which they find most diverting. I should like to repeat this exercise with the feet, but I have not bad an opportunity to make the trial.
For the education of the baric sense (sense of weight), I use with great success little wooden tablets, six by eight centimetres, having a thickness of 1/2 centimetre. These tablets are in three different qualities of wood, wistaria, walnut, and pine. They weigh respectively, 24, 18, and 12 grammes, making them differ in weight by 6 grammes. These tablets should be very smooth; if possible, varnished in such a way that every roughness shall be eliminated, but so that the natural colour of the wood shall remain. The child, _observing_ the colour, _knows_ that they are of differing weights, and this offers a means of controlling the exercise. He takes two of the tablets in his hands, letting them rest upon the palm at the base of his outstretched fingers. Then he moves his hands up and down in order to gauge the weight. This movement should come to be, little by little, almost insensible. We lead the child to make his distinction purely through the difference in weight, leaving out the guide of the different colours, and closing his eyes. He learns to do this of himself, and takes great interest in "guessing."
The game attracts the attention of those near, who gather in a circle about the one who has the tablets, and who take turns in _guessing_.
Sometimes the children spontaneously make use of the blindfold, taking turns, and interspersing the work with peals of joyful laughter.
EDUCATION OF THE STEREOGNOSTIC SENSE
The education of this sense leads to the recognition of objects through feeling, that is, through the simultaneous help of the tactile and muscular senses.
Taking this union as a basis, we have made experiments which have given marvellously successful educational results. I feel that for the help of teachers these exercises should be described.
The first didactic material used by us is made up of the bricks and cubes of Froebel. We call the attention of the child to the form of the two solids, have him feel them carefully and accurately, with his eyes open, repeating some phrase serving to fix his attention upon the particulars of the forms presented. After this the child is told to place the cubes to the right, the bricks to the left, always feeling them, and without looking at them. Finally the exercise is repeated, by the child blindfolded. Almost all the children succeed in the exercise, and after two or three times, are able to eliminate every error. There are twenty-four of the bricks and cubes in all, so that the attention may be held for some time through this "game"--but undoubtedly the child"s pleasure is greatly increased by the fact of his being watched by a group of his companions, all interested and eager.
One day a directress called my attention to a little girl of three years, one of our very youngest pupils, who had repeated this exercise perfectly. We seated the little girl comfortably in an armchair, close to the table. Then, placing the twenty-four objects before her upon the table, we mixed them, and calling the child"s attention to the difference in form, told her to place the cubes to the right and the bricks to the left. When she was blindfolded she began the exercise as taught by us, taking an object in each hand, feeling each and putting it in its right place. Sometimes she took two cubes, or two bricks, sometimes she found a brick in the right hand, a cube in the left. The child had to recognise the form, and to remember throughout the exercise the proper placing of the different objects. This seemed to me very difficult for a child of three years.
But observing her I saw that she not only performed the exercise easily, but that the movements with which we had taught her to feel the form were superfluous. Indeed the instant she had taken the two objects in her hands, if it so happened that she had taken a cube with the left hand and a brick in the right, she _exchanged_ them _immediately_, and _then_ began the laborious feeling the form which we had taught and which she perhaps, believed to be obligatory. But the objects had been recognised by her through _the first light touch_, that is, the _recognition_ was _contemporaneous_ to _the taking_.
Continuing my study of the subject, I found that this little girl was possessed of a remarkable _functional ambidexterity_--I should be very glad to make a wider study of this phenomenon having in view the desirability of a simultaneous education of both hands.
I repeated the exercise with other children and found that they _recognise_ the objects before feeling their contours. This was particularly true of the _little ones_. Our educational methods in this respect furnished a remarkable exercise in a.s.sociative gymnastics, leading to a rapidity of judgment which was truly surprising and had the advantage of being perfectly adapted to very young children.
These exercises of the stereognostic sense may be multiplied in many ways--they amuse the children who find delight in the recognition of a stimulus, as in the thermic exercises; for example--they may raise any small objects, toy soldiers, little b.a.l.l.s, and, above all, the various _coins_ in common use. They come to discriminate between small forms varying very slightly, such as corn, wheat, and rice.
They are very proud of _seeing without eyes_, holding out their hands and crying, "Here are my eyes!" "I can see with my hands!" Indeed, our little ones walking in the ways we have planned, make us marvel over their unforeseen progress, surprising us daily. Often, while they are wild with delight over some new conquest,--we watch, in deepest wonder and meditation.
EDUCATION OF THE SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL
This phase of sense education is most difficult, and I have not as yet had any satisfactory results to record. I can only say that the exercises ordinarily used in the tests of psychometry do not seem to me to be practical for use with young children.
The olfactory sense in children is not developed to any great extent, and this makes it difficult to attract their attention by means of this sense. We have made use of one test which has not been repeated often enough to form the basis of a method. We have the child smell fresh violets, and jessamine flowers. We then blindfold him, saying, "Now we are going to present you with flowers." A little friend then holds a bunch of violets under the child"s nose, that he may guess the name of the flower. For greater or less intensify we present fewer flowers, or even one single blossom.
[Ill.u.s.tration: (A) DRAWING TABLE AND INSET. (B) WOODEN TABLETS. These are partly covered with sandpaper to give rough and smooth surfaces.
(C) SOLID INSETS. With these the child, working by himself, learns to differentiate objects according to thickness, height, and size.
_Copyright, 1912, by Carl R. Byoir_]
[Ill.u.s.tration: (A) BROAD STAIR. (B) LONG STAIR. (C) TOWER. Blocks by which children are taught thickness, length, size.
_Copyright, 1912 by Carl R. Byoir_]
But this part of education, like that of the sense of taste, can be obtained by the child during the luncheon hour;--when he can learn to recognise various odours.
As to taste, the method of touching the tongue with various solutions, bitter or acid, sweet, salty, is perfectly applicable. Children of four years readily lend themselves to such games, which serve as a reason for showing them how to rinse their mouths perfectly. The children enjoy recognising various flavours, and learn, after each test, to fill a gla.s.s with tepid water, and carefully rinse their months. In this way the exercise for the sense of taste is also an exercise in hygiene.
EDUCATION OF THE SENSE OF VISION
_I. Differential Visual Perception of Dimensions_
_First._ Solid Insets: This material consists of three solid blocks of wood each 55 centimetres long, 6 centimetres high and 8 centimetres wide. Each block contains ten wooden pieces, set into corresponding holes. These pieces are cylindrical in shape and are to be handled by means of a little wooden or bra.s.s b.u.t.ton which is fixed in the centre of the top. The cases of cylinders are in appearance much like the cases of weights used by chemists. In the first set of the series, the cylinders are all of equal height (55 millimetres) but differ in diameter. The smallest cylinder has a diameter of 1 centimetre, and the others increase in diameter at the rate of 1/2 centimetre. In the second set, the cylinders are all of equal diameter, corresponding to half the diameter of the largest cylinder in the preceding series--(27 millimetres). The cylinders in this set differ in height, the first being merely a little disk only a centimetre high, the others increase 5 millimetres each, the tenth one being 55 millimetres high. In the third set, the cylinders differ both in height and diameter, the first being 1 centimetre high and 1 centimetre in diameter and each succeeding one increasing 1/2 centimetre in height and diameter. With these insets, the child, working by himself, learns to differentiate objects according to _thickness_, according to _height_, and according to _size_.
In the schoolroom, these three sets may be played with by three children gathered about a table, an exchange of games adding variety. The child takes the cylinders out of the moulds, mixes them upon the table, and then puts each back into its corresponding opening. These objects are made of hard pine, polished and varnished.
_Second._ Large pieces in graded dimensions:--There are three sets of blocks which come under this head, and it is desirable to have two of each of these sets in every school.
(_a_) Thickness: this set consists of objects which vary from _thick_ to _thin_. There are ten quadrilateral prisms, the largest of which has a base of 10 centimetres, the others decreasing by 1 centimetre. The pieces are of equal length, 20 centimetres. These prisms are stained a dark brown. The child mixes them, scattering them over the little carpet, and then puts them in order, placing one against the other according to the graduations of thickness, observing that the length shall correspond exactly. These blocks, taken from the first to the last, form a species of _stair_, the steps of which grow broader toward the top. The child may begin with the thinnest piece or with the thickest, as suits his pleasure. The control of the exercise is not _certain_, as it was in the solid cylindrical insets. There, the large cylinders could not enter the small opening, the taller ones would project beyond the top of the block, etc. In this game of the Big Stair, the _eye_ of the child can easily recognise an error, since if he mistakes, the _stair_ is irregular, that is, there will be a high step, behind which, the step which should have ascended, decreases.
(_b_) Length: Long and Short Objects:--This set consists of _ten rods_.
These are four-sided, each face being 3 centimetres. The first rod is a metre long, and the last a decimetre. The intervening rods decrease, from first to last, 1 decimetre each. Each s.p.a.ce of 1 decimetre is painted alternately _red_ or _blue_. The rods, when placed close to each other, must be so arranged that the colours correspond, forming so many transverse stripes--the whole set when arranged has the appearance of a rectangular triangle made up of organ pipes, which decrease on the side of the hypothenuse.
The child arranges the rods which have first been scattered and mixed.
He puts them together according to the graduation of length, and observes the correspondence of colours. This exercise also offers a very evident control of error, for the regularity of the decreasing length of the stairs along the hypothenuse will be altered if the rods are not properly placed.
This most important set of blocks will have its princ.i.p.al application in arithmetic, as we shall see. With it, one may count from one to ten and may construct the addition and other tables, and it may const.i.tute the first steps in the study of the decimal and metric system.
(_c_) Size: Objects, Larger and Smaller:--This set is made up of ten wooden cubes painted in rose-coloured enamel. The largest cube has a base of 10 centimetres, the smallest, of 1 centimetre, the intervening ones decrease 1 centimetre each. A little green cloth carpet goes with these blocks. This may be of oilcloth or cardboard. The game consists of building the cubes up, one upon another, in the order of their dimensions, constructing a little tower of which the largest cube forms the base and the smallest the apex. The carpet is placed on the floor, and the cubes are scattered upon it. As the tower is built upon the carpet, the child goes through the exercise of kneeling, rising, etc.
The control is given by the irregularity of the tower as it decreases toward the apex. A cube misplaced reveals itself, because it breaks the line. The most common error made by the children in playing with these blocks at first, is that of placing the second cube as the base and placing the first cube upon it, thus confusing the two largest blocks. I have noted that the same error was made by deficient children in the repeated trials I made with the tests of De Sanctis. At the question, "Which is the largest?" the child would take, not the largest, but that nearest it in size.
Any of these three sets of blocks may be used by the children in a slightly different game. The pieces may be mixed upon a carpet or table, and then put in order upon another table at some distance. As he carries each piece, the child must walk without letting his attention wander, since he must remember the dimensions of the piece for which he is to look among the mixed blocks.