Many of the Apaches attached a piece of malachite to their guns and bows to make them shoot accurately. Bourke mentions a cla.s.s of fetishes which he terms "phylacteries." These are pieces of buckskin or other material upon which are inscribed certain characters or symbols of a religious or "medicine" nature, and they are worn attached to the person who seeks benefit from them. They differ from the ordinary fetish in that they are concealed from the public gaze. These "phylacteries," Bourke says, "themselves medicine," may be employed to enwrap other "medicine," and "thus augment their own potentialities."
He describes several of these objects. One worn by an Indian named Ta-ul-tzu-je "was tightly rolled in at least half a mile of saddler"s silk, and when brought to light was found to consist of a small piece of buckskin two inches square, upon which were drawn red and yellow crooked lines, which represented the red and yellow snake. Inside were a piece of malachite and a small cross of lightning-riven pine, and two very small perforated sh.e.l.ls. The cross they designated "the black mind."" Another "phylactery" consisted of a tiny bag of hoddentin, holding a small quartz crystal and four feathers of eagle-down. This charm, it was explained by an Indian, contained not merely the "medicine" of the crystal and the eagle, but also that of the black bear, the white lion, and the yellow snake.
{91}
Iroquoian Fetishes
Things that seem at all unusual are accepted by the Hurons, a tribe of the Iroquois, as _oky_, or supernatural, and therefore it is accounted lucky to find them. In hunting, if they find a stone or other object in the entrails of an animal they at once make a fetish of it. Any object of a peculiar shape they treasure for the same reason. They greatly fear that demons or evil spirits will purloin their fetishes, which they esteem so highly as to propitiate them in feasts and invoke them in song. The highest type of fetish obtainable by a Huron was a piece of the onniont, or great armoured serpent, a mythological animal revered by many North American tribes.
Fetishism among the Algonquins
Hoffmann states that at the "medicine" lodges of some Algonquian tribes there are preserved fetishes or amulets worn above the elbows, consisting of strands of bead-work, metal bands, or skunk skins, while bracelets of sh.e.l.ls, buckskin, or metal are also worn. A great tribal fetish of the Cheyenne was their "medicine" arrow, which was taken from them by the p.a.w.nees in battle. The head of this arrow projects from the bag which contains it, and it is covered with delicate waved or spiral lines, which denote its sacred character. It was, indeed, the palladium of the tribe. A peculiar type of fetish consisted of a mantle made from the skin of a deer and covered with feathers mixed with headings. It was made and used by the medicine-men as a mantle of invisibility, or charmed covering to enable spies to traverse an enemy"s country in security. In this instance the fetishistic power depended upon the devices drawn upon the article. The princ.i.p.al fetishes among {92} the Hidatsa tribe of the Sioux are the skins of foxes and wolves, the favourite worn fetish being the stripe from the back of a wolf-skin with the tail hanging down the shoulders. A slit is made in the skin, through which the warrior puts his head, so that the skin of the wolf"s head hangs down upon his breast. The most common tribal fetishes of the Sioux are, or were, buffalo heads, the neck-bones of which they preserve in the belief that the buffalo herds will thereby be prevented from removing to too great a distance. At certain periods they perform a ceremony with these bones, which consists in taking a potsherd filled with embers, throwing sweet-smelling grease upon it, and fumigating the bones with the smoke.
There are certain trees and stones which are regarded as fetishes. To these offerings of red cloth, red paint, and other articles are made.
Each individual has his personal fetish, and it is carried in all hunting and warlike excursions. It usually consists of a head, claws, stuffed skin, or other representative feature of the fetish animal.
Even the horses are provided with fetishes, in the shape of a deer"s horn, to ensure their swiftness. The rodent teeth of the beaver are regarded as potent charms, and are worn by little girls round their necks to make them industrious.
At Sikyatki, in Arizona, a territorial nucleus of the Hopi Indians, Mr.
Fewkes had opportunities of inspecting many interesting fetish forms.
A number of these discovered in native graves were pebbles with a polished surface, or having a fancied resemblance to some animal shape.
Many of the personal fetishes of the Hopi consist of fossils, some of which attain the rank of tribal fetishes and are wrapped up in sacred bundles, which are highly venerated. In one grave was found a single large fetish in the shape of a mountain {93} lion, made of sandstone, in which legs, ears, tail, and eyes are represented, the mouth still showing the red pigment with which it had been coloured. This is almost identical with some fetishes used by the Hopi at the present day.
Totemism and Fetishism Meet
Fetishism among the Zuni Indians of the south arose from an idea they entertained that they were kin with animals; in other words, their fetishes were totemistic. Totemism and fetishism were by no means incompatible with one another, but often flourished side by side.
Fetishism of the Zuni description is, indeed, the natural concomitant of a totemic system. Zuni fetishes are usually concretions of lime or objects in which a natural resemblance to animals has been heightened by artificial means. Ancient fetishes are much valued by these people, and are often found by them in the vicinity of villages inhabited by their ancestors, and as tribal possessions are handed down from one generation to another. The medicine-men believe them to be the actual petrifactions of the animals they represent.
The Sun-Children
The Zuni philosophy of the fetish is given in the "Tale of the Two Sun-Children" as follows: "Now that the surface of the earth was hardened even the animals of prey, powerful and like the fathers [G.o.ds]
themselves, would have devoured the children of men, and the two thought it was not well that they should all be permitted to live, for, said they, "Alike the children of men and the children of the animals of prey multiply themselves. The animals of prey are provided with talons and teeth; men are but poor, the finished beings of earth, therefore the weaker." {94} Whenever they came across the pathway of one of these animals, were he a great mountain lion or but a mere mole, they struck him with the fire of lightning which they carried on their magic shields. _Thlu!_ and instantly he was shrivelled and turned into stone. Then said they to the animals that they had changed into stone, "That ye may not be evil unto man, but that ye may be a great good unto them, have we changed you into rock everlasting. By the magic breath of prey, by the heart that shall endure for ever within you, shall ye be made to serve instead of to devour mankind." Thus was the surface of the earth hardened and scorched, and many of all kinds of beings changed to stone. Thus, too, it happens that we find here and there throughout the world their forms, sometimes large, like the beings themselves, sometimes shrivelled and distorted, and we often see among the rocks the forms of many beings that live no longer, which shows us that all was different in the "days of the new." Of these petrifactions, which are, of course, mere concretions or strangely shaped rock-forms, the Zuni say: "Whomsoever of us may be met with the light of such great good-fortune may see them, and should treasure them for the sake of the sacred [magic] power which was given them in the days of the new.""[2]
[2] Cushing"s _Zuni Fetiches_ (1883).
The Prey-G.o.ds
This tradition furnishes additional evidence relative to the preceding statement, and is supposed to enlighten the Zuni Indian as to wherein lies the power of fetishes. It is thought that the hearts of the great animals of prey are infused with a "medicinal" or magic influence over the hearts of the animals they prey upon, and {95} that they overcome them with their breath, piercing their hearts and quite numbing them.
Moreover, their roar is fatal to the senses of the lower beasts. The mountain lion absorbs the blood of the game animals, therefore he possesses their acute senses. Again, those powers, as derived from his heart, are preserved in his fetish, since his heart still lives, even although his body be changed to stone. It happens, therefore, that the use of these fetishes is chiefly connected with the chase. But there are exceptions. The great animals of the chase, although fetishistic, are also regarded as supernatural beings, the mythological position of which is absolutely defined. In the City of the Mists lives Po-shai-an-K"ia, father of the "medicine" societies, a culture-hero deity, whose abode is guarded by six beings known as the "Prey-G.o.ds,"
and it is their counterfeit presentments that are made use of as fetishes. To the north of the City of the Mists dwells the Mountain Lion prey-G.o.d, to the west the Bear, to the south the Badger, to the east the Wolf, above the Eagle, below the Mole. These animals possess not only the guardianship of the six regions, but also the mastership of the "medicine" or magic powers which emanate from them. They are the mediators between Po-shai-an-K"ia and man. The prey-G.o.ds, as "Makers of the Path of Life," are given high rank among the G.o.ds, but notwithstanding this their fetishes are "held as in captivity" by the priests of the various "medicine" orders, and greatly venerated by them as mediators between themselves and the animals they represent. In this character they are exhorted with elaborate prayers, rituals, and ceremonials, and sometimes placated with sacrifices of the prey-G.o.ds of the hunt (_we-ma-a-ha-i_). Their special priests are the members of the Great Coyote {96} People--that is, they consist of eleven members of the Eagle and Coyote clans and of the Prey Brothers priesthood.
These prey-G.o.ds appear to be almost unique, and may be indicated as an instance of fetishism becoming allied with religious belief. They depict, with two exceptions, the same species of prey animals as those supposed to guard the six regions, the exceptions being the coyote and the wild cat. These six prey animals are subdivided into six varieties. They are, strictly speaking, the property of the priests, and members and priests of the sacred societies are required to deposit their fetishes, when not in use, with the Keeper of the Medicine of the Deer. These "medicines" or memberships alone can perfect the shape of the fetishes and worship them.
The Council of Fetishes
The Day of the Council of the Fetishes takes place a little before or after the winter solstice or national New Year. The fetishes are taken from their places of deposit, and arranged according to species and colour in the form of a symbolic altar, quadrupeds being placed upright and birds suspended from the roof. The fetishes are prayed to, and prayer-meal is scattered over them. Chants are intoned, and a dance performed in which the cries of the fetish beasts are imitated. A prayer with responses follows. Finally all a.s.semble round the altar and repeat the great invocation.
The Fetish in Hunting
The use of fetishes in hunting among the Zuni is extremely curious and involved in its nature. The hunter goes to the house of the Deer Medicine, where the vessel containing the fetish is brought out and placed before him. He sprinkles meal over the sacred {97} vessel in the direction in which he intends to hunt, chooses a fetish from it, and presses it to his lips with an inspiration. He then places the fetish in a buckskin bag over his heart. Proceeding to the hunt, he deposits a spider-knot of yucca leaves where an animal has rested, imitates its cry, and is supposed by this means to confine its movements within a narrow circle. He then inspires deeply from the nostrils of the fetish, as though inhaling the magic breath of the G.o.d of prey, and then puffs the breath long and loudly in the direction whence the beast"s tracks trend, in the belief that the breath he has borrowed from the prey-G.o.d will stiffen the limbs of the animal he hunts. When the beast is caught and killed he inhales its suspiring breath, which he breathes into the nostrils of the fetish. He then dips the fetish in the blood of the slain quarry, sips the blood himself, and devours the liver, in order that he may partake of the animal"s qualities. The fetish is then placed in the sun to dry, and lastly replaced in the buckskin pouch with a blessing, afterward being duly returned to the Keeper of the Deer Medicine.
Indian Theology
The late Professor Brinton, writing on the Indian att.i.tude toward the eternal verities, says:[3]
[3] _Myths of the New World_.
"Nature, to the heathen, is no harmonious whole swayed by eternal principles, but a chaos of causeless effects, the meaningless play of capricious ghosts. He investigates not, because he doubts not. All events are to him miracles. Therefore his faith knows no bounds, and those who teach him that doubt is sinful must contemplate him with admiration....
"Natural religions rarely offer more than this negative opposition to reason. They are tolerant to {98} a degree. The savage, void of any clear conception of a supreme deity, sets up no claim that his is the only true church. If he is conquered in battle he imagines that it is owing to the inferiority of his own G.o.ds to those of his victor, and he rarely, therefore, requires any other reasons to make him a convert.
"In this view of the relative powers of deities lay a potent corrective to the doctrine that the fate of man was dependent on the caprices of the G.o.ds. For no belief was more universal than that which a.s.signed to each individual a guardian spirit. This invisible monitor was an ever-present help in trouble. He suggested expedients, gave advice and warning in dreams, protected in danger, and stood ready to foil the machinations of enemies, divine or human.
"With unlimited faith in this protector, attributing to him the devices suggested by his own quick wits and the fortunate chances of life, the savage escaped the oppressive thought that he was the slave of demoniac forces, and dared the dangers of the forest and the war-path without anxiety.
"By far the darkest side of such a religion is that which it presents to morality. The religious sense is by no means the voice of conscience. The Takahli Indian when sick makes a full and free confession of sins, but a murder, however unnatural and unprovoked, he does not mention, not counting it a crime. Scenes of licentiousness were approved and sustained throughout the continent as acts of worship; maidenhood was in many parts freely offered up or claimed by the priests as a right; in Central America twins were slain for religious motives; human sacrifice was common throughout the tropics, and was not unusual in higher lat.i.tudes; cannibalism was often enjoined; and in Peru, Florida, and Central America it was not {99} uncommon for parents to slay their own children at the behest of a priest.
"The philosophical moralist contemplating such spectacles has thought to recognize in them one consoling trait. All history, it has been said, shows man living under an irritated G.o.d, and seeking to appease him by sacrifice of blood; the essence of all religion, it has been added, lies in that of which sacrifice is the symbol--namely, in the offering up of self, in the rendering up of our will to the will of G.o.d.
"But sacrifice, when not a token of grat.i.tude, cannot be thus explained. It is not a rendering up, but a _subst.i.tution_ of our will for G.o.d"s will. A deity is angered by neglect of his dues; he will revenge, certainly, terribly, we know not how or when. But as punishment is all he desires, if we punish ourselves he will be satisfied; and far better is such self-inflicted torture than a fearful looking-for of judgment to come. Craven fear, not without some dim sense of the implacability of nature"s laws, is at its roots.
"Looking only at this side of religion, the ancient philosopher averred that the G.o.ds existed solely in the apprehensions of their votaries, and the moderns have a.s.serted that "fear is the father of religion, love her late-born daughter"; that "the first form of religious belief is nothing else but a horror of the unknown," and that "no natural religion appears to have been able to develop from a germ within itself anything whatever of real advantage to civilization."
"Looking around for other standards wherewith to measure the progress of the knowledge of divinity in the New World, _prayer_ suggests itself as one of the least deceptive. "Prayer," to quote the words of Novalis, "is in religion what thought is in philosophy. The religious sense prays, as the reason thinks." Guizot, {100} carrying the a.n.a.lysis farther, thinks that it is prompted by a painful conviction of the inability of our will to conform to the dictates of reason.
"Originally it was connected with the belief that divine caprice, not divine law, governs the universe, and that material benefits rather than spiritual gifts are to be desired. The gradual recognition of its limitations and proper objects marks religious advancement. The Lord"s Prayer contains seven pet.i.tions, only one of which is for a temporal advantage, and it the least that can be asked for.
"What immeasurable interval between it and the prayer of the Nootka Indian preparing for war:
""Great Quahootze, let me live, not be sick, find the enemy, not fear him, find him asleep, and kill a great many of him."
"Or, again, between it and a pet.i.tion of a Huron to a local G.o.d, heard by Father Brebeuf:
""Oki, thou who liveth in this spot, I offer thee tobacco. Help us, save us from shipwreck, defend us from our enemies, give us a good trade and bring us back safe and sound to our villages."