The list of subjects for a mediaeval degree is too long to be given here; it may be mentioned, however, that Aristotle, then as always, held a prominent place in Oxford"s Schools.[15] This was common to other universities, but the weight given to Mathematics and to Music was a special feature of the Oxford course.
The lectures were of course University and not college lectures; the latter hardly existed before the sixteenth century, and were as a rule confined to members of the college. As there were no "Professors" in our sense, the instruction was given by the ordinary Masters of Arts, among whom those who were of less than two years" standing were compelled to lecture, and were styled "necessary regents" (i.e. they "governed the Schools"). They were paid by the fees of their pupils (_Collecta_, a word familiar in a different sense in our "Collections"). There was keen compet.i.tion in early days to attract the largest possible audience, but later on the University enacted that all fees should be pooled and equally divided among the teachers. For this (and for other reasons) the lectures became more and more a mere form, and no real part of a student"s education.
[Sidenote: Cutting Lectures.]
There had been from time immemorial a fixed tariff for "cutting"[16]
lectures, and there was a further fine of the same amount for failing to take notes. But the University from time to time tried actually to enforce attendance. A curious instance of this occurs toward the close of the reign of Elizabeth; a number of students were solemnly warned that "by cutting" lectures, they were incurring the guilt of perjury, because they had sworn to obey the statutes which required attendance at lectures. They explained they had thought their "neglect" to hear lectures only involved them in the fine and not in "perjury", and after this apology they seem to have proceeded to their degrees without further difficulty.
[Sidenote: Graces.]
In fact there was a growing separation after the fifteenth century, between the formal requirements for the degree, and the actual University system; sometimes irreconcilable difficulties arose, e.g.
when two students were (in 1599) summoned to explain why they had not attended one of the lectures required for the degree, and they presented the unanswerable excuse that the teacher in question had not lectured, having himself been excused by the University from the duty of giving the lecture. In fact the whole system would have been unworkable but for the power of granting "graces" or dispensations, which has already been referred to: how necessary and almost universal these were, may be seen from the fact that even so conscientious a disciplinarian as Archbishop Laud, stern alike to himself and to others, was dispensed from observing all the statutes when he took his D.D. (1608) "because he was called away suddenly on necessary business". We can well believe that Laud then, as always, was busy, but there were other students who got their "graces" with much less excuse. Modern students may well envy the good fortune of the brothers Carey from Exeter College, who (in 1614) were dispensed because "being shortly about to depart from the University, they desired to take with them the B.A. degree as a benediction from their Alma Mater, the University".
[Sidenote: The New College Privilege.]
One curious development of the old system of "graces" survived in one of the most prominent of Oxford colleges almost till within living memory.[17] William of Wykeham had ordained that his students should perform the whole of the University requirements, and not avail themselves of dispensations. When the granting of these became so frequent that they were looked upon as the essential part of the system, the idea grew up that New College men were to be exempt from the ordinary tests of the University. Hence a Wykehamist took his degree with no examination but that of his own college, both under the Laudian Statute and after the great statute of 1800, which set up the modern system of examinations. What the founder had intended as an encouragement for industry was made by his degenerate disciples an excuse for idleness.
[Sidenote: (3) Examinations.]
So far only the qualifications of residence and attendance on lectures have been spoken of. The great test of our own times, the examination, has not even been referred to. And it must certainly be admitted that the terrors of the modern written examinations were unknown in the old universities; such testing as took place was always viva voce. That the tests were serious, in theory at any rate, may be fairly inferred from the frequent statutes at Paris against bribing examiners, and from the provision at Bologna that at this "rigorous and tremendous examination", the examiner should treat the examinee "as his own son". Robert de Sorbonne, the founder of the famous college at Paris, has even left a sermon in which an elaborate comparison is drawn between university examinations and the Last Judgement; it need hardly be said that the moral of the sermon is the greater severity of the heavenly test as compared with the earthly; if a man neglects his prescribed book, he will be rejected once, but if he neglect "the book of conscience, he will be rejected for ever". Such a comparison was not likely to have been made, had not the earthly ordeal possessed terrors at least as great as those that mark its modern successors.
[Sidenote: Responsions.]
It may be added at once, however, that we hear very little about examinations in old Oxford; but still there were some. Then as now the first examination was Responsions, a name which has survived for at least 500 years, whatever changes there have been in its meaning. The University also still retains the time-honoured name of the "Masters of the Schools" for those who conduct this examination (though there are now six and not four, as in the thirteenth century), and candidates who pa.s.s are still said as of old to have "responded in Parviso".[18]
In the fifteenth century a man had to be up at least a year before he entered for this examination, in the sixteenth century he could not do so before his ninth term, i.e. only a little more than a year before he took his B.A. The examination is now generally taken before coming into residence, and the most patriotic Oxford man would hardly apply to it the enthusiastic praises of the seventeenth-century Vice-Chancellor (1601) who called it "gloriosum illud et laudabile in parviso certamen, quo antiquitus inclaruit nostra Academia".
[Sidenote: Other examinations.]
At the end of four years, as has been said, a man "determined", i.e.
performed the disputations and other requirements for the degree of B.A., and after this ceremony there were more "lectures and disputings"
to be performed in the additional three years" residence required for a Master"s degree. Nothing, however, is said of definite examinations as to the intellectual fitness of candidates for the M.A. Hearne (early in the eighteenth century) quotes from an old book, that the candidate "must submit himself privately to the examination of everyone of that degree, whereunto he desireth to be admitted". But the terror of such a multiplied test was no doubt greatly softened by the fact that what is everybody"s business is n.o.body"s business.
[Sidenote: (4) Character.]
The stress laid on the course followed rather than on the final examination brings out the great idea underlying the old degree; it sought its qualifications on all sides of a man"s life, and not simply in his power to get up and reproduce knowledge. Hence it is provided that M.A.s should admit to "Determination" (i.e. to the B.A.) only those who are "fit in knowledge and character"; "if any question arises on other points, e.g. as to age, stature, or other outward qualifications (_corporum circ.u.mstantiis_)", it is reserved for the majority of the Regents. How minute was the inquiry into character can be seen in the case of a certain Robert Smith (of Magdalen) in 1582, who was refused his B.A., because he had brought scandalous charges against the fellows of his College, had called an M.A. "to his face "arrant knave", had been at a disputation in the Divinity School" in the open a.s.sembly of Doctors and Masters "with his hat on his head", and had "taken the wall of M.A.s without any moving of his hat".
All such minute inquiries as these are now left to the colleges, who are required by statute to see to it that candidates for the degree are "of good character" (_probis moribus_).
[Sidenote: (5) _Circuitus_.]
When a candidate"s "grace" had been obtained there was still another precaution before the degree, whether B.A. or M.A., was actually conferred. He had to go bare-headed, in his academical dress, round the "Schools", preceded by the Bedel of his faculty, and to call on the Vice-Chancellor and two Proctors before sunset; this gave more opportunity to the authorities or to any M.A. to see whether he was fit.
Of this old ceremony a bare fragment still remains in the custom that a candidate"s name has to be entered in a book at the Vice-Chancellor"s house before noon on the day preceding the degree-giving; but this formality now is usually performed for a man by his college Dean, or even by a college servant.
[Sidenote: (6) _De positio._]
When the day of the ceremony arrived, solemn testimony was given to the Proctor of the candidate"s fitness by those who "deposed" for him. In the case of the B.A., nine Bachelors were required to testify to fitness; in the case of the M.A., nine Masters had to swear this from "sure knowledge", and five more "to the best of their belief" (_de credulitate_). These depositions were whispered into the ears of the Proctor by the witnesses kneeling before him. The information was given on oath, and as it were under the seal of confession; for neither they nor the Proctors were allowed to reveal it. Of all this picturesque ceremony nothing is left but the number "nine"; so many M.A.s at least must be present, in order that the degree may be rightly given. It is not infrequent, towards the close of a degree ceremony, for a Dean who is about to leave, having presented his own men, to be asked to remain until the proceedings are over, in order to "make a House".
The preliminaries, formal or otherwise, to the conferment of degrees have now been described. Two other points must be here mentioned, in one of which the University still retains its old custom, in the other it has departed from it.
[Sidenote: Degrees in Arts required for entrance to the Higher Faculties.]
The first is the requirement which has always been maintained in Oxford, that a candidate for one of the higher degrees, e.g. the D.D. or the D.M., should have first pa.s.sed through the Arts course, and taken the ordinary B.A. degree.
This principle, that a general education should precede a special study, is most important now; it has also a venerable history. It was established by the University as long ago as the beginning of the fourteenth century, and was the result of a long struggle against the Mendicant Friars. This struggle was part of that jealousy between the Regular and the Secular Clergy, which is so important in the history of the English Church in mediaeval times.
The University, as identified with the ordinary clergy, steadfastly resisted the claim of the great preaching orders, the Franciscans and the Dominicans, to proceed to a degree in Theology without first taking the Arts course. The case was carried to Rome more than once, and was decided both for and against the University; but royal favour and popular feeling were for the Oxford authorities against the Friars, and the principle was maintained then, and, as has been said, has been maintained always.
[Sidenote: The M.A. becomes a form.]
In the other point there has been a great departure from old usage. The original degree course involved seven years" residence for those who wished to become Masters. Even before the Reformation, the number of those who took the degree was comparatively small, although the candidate at entrance was often only thirteen years old or even younger; and with the improvement of the schools of the country in the sixteenth century, the need of such prolonged residence became less, as candidates were better prepared before they came up. Since the old arrangements were clearly unworkable, different universities have modified them in various ways; in Scotland the Baccalaureate has disappeared altogether, and the undergraduate pa.s.ses straight to his M.A.; in France the degree of _bachelier_ is the lowest of university qualifications, and more nearly resembles our Matriculation than anything else; in Germany the Doctorate is the reward of undergraduate studies, although it need hardly be said that those studies are on different lines from those of our own undergraduates. In England the old names have both been maintained (the English, like the Romans, are essentially conservative), but their meaning has been entirely altered.
We can trace in the Elizabethan and the Stuart periods the gradual modification of the old requirements for the residence of M.A.s, by means of dispensations. This was done in two ways. Sometimes the actual time required was shortened, because a man was poor, because he could get clerical promotion if he were an M.A., or even by a general "grace"
in order to increase the number of those taking the degree. If only a small number incepted it was thought a reflection on Oxford, and there were always Cambridge spectators at hand to note it. And as the Proctors were largely paid by the degree fees, they had an obvious interest in increasing the number of M.A.s.
But it was more frequent to retain the length of time, but to dispense with actual residence; special reasons for this, e.g. clerical duties, travel, lawsuits, are at first given, but it gradually became the normal procedure, and residence ceased to be required after the B.A. degree had been taken. The Master"s term was retained _pro forma_ till within the recollection of graduates still living (it will be remembered that Mr.
Hughes makes "Tom Brown" return to keep it, a sadder and a wiser man); but even that form has now disappeared, and the Oxford M.A. qualifies for his degree only by continuing to live and by paying fees. It may be added at once that the maintenance of the form is essential to the finance of the University; the M.A. fees alone, apart from the dues paid in the interval between taking the B.A. and the M.A., amount to some 6,000 a year, and considering how little the ordinary man pays as an undergraduate to the University, the payment of the M.A. is one that is fully due; it should be regarded by all Oxford men as an expression of the grat.i.tude to their Alma Mater, which they are in duty bound to show.
The future of Oxford finance would be brighter if some reformer could devise means by which the relation of the M.A. to his University might become more of a reality, so that he might realize his obligations to her. The doctrine of Walter de Merton that a foundation should benefit by the "happy fortune" (_uberiore fortuna_) of its sons in subsequent life, is one that sadly needs emphasizing in Oxford.
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 13: This custom has left its trace in our matriculation arrangements. Candidates are still required to state the rank of their father, and their position in the family, though birth and primogeniture no longer carry any privileges with them at Oxford.]
[Footnote 14: The University authorities at Paris and elsewhere had a great objection to dictating lectures; on the other hand the mediaeval undergraduate, like his modern successor, loved to "get something down", and was wont to protest forcibly against a lecturer who went too fast, by hissing, shouting, or even organized stone-throwing.]
[Footnote 15: It is amusing to notice that the irreducible minimum of the _Ethics_ at Paris in the fourteenth century consists of the same first four books that are still almost universally taken up at Oxford for the pa.s.s degree (i.e. in the familiar "Group A. I").]
[Footnote 16: It was only _2d._, a sum which has been immortalized by Samuel Johnson"s famous retort on his tutor: "Sir, you have sconced me _2d._ for non-attendance at a lecture not worth a penny."]
[Footnote 17: It was resigned voluntarily by New College in 1834; but the distinction is still observed (or should be) that a Fellow of the College needs no grace for his degree, or if one is asked, "demands" it as a right (_postulat_ is used instead of the usual _supplicat_). I have adopted Dr. Rashdall"s explanation of the origin of this strange privilege. It is curious to add that King"s College, Cambridge, copied it, along with other and better features, from its great predecessor and model, New College.]
[Footnote 18: i.e. in the Parvis or Porch of St. Mary"s, where the disputations on Logic and Grammar, which formed the examination, took place: this was probably a room over the actual entrance, such as was common in mediaeval churches; there is a small example of one still to be seen in Oxford, over the south porch of St. Mary Magdalen Church.]
CHAPTER IV
THE OFFICERS OF THE UNIVERSITY
[Sidenote: The Origin of the Chancellor"s Authority.]
The beginning of the organized authority of the University, as has been already said (p. 22), is the mention of the Chancellor in the charter of 1214. In the earliest period this officer was the centre of the const.i.tutional life of Oxford. Although the bishop"s representative, and as such endowed with an authority external to the University, he was, perhaps from the first, elected by the Doctors and Masters there. Hence by a truly English anomaly, the representative of outside authority becomes identified with the representative of the democratic principle, and the Oxford Chancellor combined in himself the position of the elected Rector of a foreign university, and that of the Chancellor appointed by an external power. The reason for this anomaly is partly the remote position of the episcopal see; Lincoln, the bishop"s seat, was more than 100 miles from the University town, which lay on the very borders of his great diocese. The combination too was surely made easy by the influence of the great scholar-saint, Bishop Grosseteste, who had himself filled the position of Chancellor (though he may not have borne the t.i.tle) before he pa.s.sed to the see of Lincoln, which he held for eighteen years (1235-1253) during the critical period of the growth of the academic const.i.tution.
[Ill.u.s.tration]
[Ill.u.s.tration]