The Perfect King_ The Life of Edward III

Chapter 10

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Edward"s eldest son, the prince of Wales, had long been marked down for duty in Gascony. Ever since his first campaign there, when the Gascon n.o.bles had actually requested his presence, it had seemed the ideal training ground for his princely qualities. Accordingly, the prince did homage for the duchy of Aquitaine, which his father now elevated into a princ.i.p.ality, on 19 19 July July 1362. 1362. With his wife he then set out for his new domain, where he arrived the following June, having spent the whole winter on his estates in Cornwall. His administration in the duchy began well, ably led by his constable and fellow Garter knight, Sir John Chandos. Nor did Edward wholly give up decision-making over the princ.i.p.ality, unable perhaps to relinquish control of the land which his comrades like Manny and Lancaster had fought so hard to secure. One interesting aspect was a code by which Edward could be sure that letters sent to him purporting to be written by the prince were actually written by him. These were to bear one of the prince"s mottoes, With his wife he then set out for his new domain, where he arrived the following June, having spent the whole winter on his estates in Cornwall. His administration in the duchy began well, ably led by his constable and fellow Garter knight, Sir John Chandos. Nor did Edward wholly give up decision-making over the princ.i.p.ality, unable perhaps to relinquish control of the land which his comrades like Manny and Lancaster had fought so hard to secure. One interesting aspect was a code by which Edward could be sure that letters sent to him purporting to be written by the prince were actually written by him. These were to bear one of the prince"s mottoes, "houmont" "houmont" (great courage) or (great courage) or "ich dien" "ich dien" (I serve). (I serve).

The goodwill towards the English in the region remained strong for several years. It was visible in 1364, 1364, when the prince needed to raise money. He inst.i.tuted a hearth tax, and a high one at that, which should have been very difficult to impose on areas which had largely evaded paying taxes altogether for a number of years. There were questions raised in the Agenais, and the county of Rodez, where the count of Armagnac forbade his va.s.sals from paying the tax, but otherwise this controversial measure was accepted throughout the princ.i.p.ality. The prince"s autocratic manner, however, did not endear him greatly to his subjects, and he personally alienated a number of Gascon lords. Nor did he have the administrative and negotiating capabilities of his father. He proved unable to find diplomatic solutions to the boundary disputes occasioned by the Bretigny treaty, and showed himself unwilling or unable to prevent the army of English freebooters from a.s.saulting French possessions on the fringes of the province. In November when the prince needed to raise money. He inst.i.tuted a hearth tax, and a high one at that, which should have been very difficult to impose on areas which had largely evaded paying taxes altogether for a number of years. There were questions raised in the Agenais, and the county of Rodez, where the count of Armagnac forbade his va.s.sals from paying the tax, but otherwise this controversial measure was accepted throughout the princ.i.p.ality. The prince"s autocratic manner, however, did not endear him greatly to his subjects, and he personally alienated a number of Gascon lords. Nor did he have the administrative and negotiating capabilities of his father. He proved unable to find diplomatic solutions to the boundary disputes occasioned by the Bretigny treaty, and showed himself unwilling or unable to prevent the army of English freebooters from a.s.saulting French possessions on the fringes of the province. In November 1364, 1364, when the violence of these freebooting companies had reached desperate levels, the order to put down the violence came not from the prince but from King Edward in England. So it was doubly unwise for the prince to parade himself around in magnificent ostentation: he was undermining his own position by claiming too much credit and undertaking too little responsibility. Thousands turned out to see the christening at Bordeaux of his first-born son, Edward, in when the violence of these freebooting companies had reached desperate levels, the order to put down the violence came not from the prince but from King Edward in England. So it was doubly unwise for the prince to parade himself around in magnificent ostentation: he was undermining his own position by claiming too much credit and undertaking too little responsibility. Thousands turned out to see the christening at Bordeaux of his first-born son, Edward, in 1365, 1365, and the occasion should have been used to weld the Gascons more firmly into an English-led unity. But the prince saw the moment as one in which all the glory was for him and his family, not Gascony. Edward of Woodstock had all the courage and martial talent of Edward I and Edward III, but his autocratic att.i.tude and diplomatic skills were reminiscent of Edward II. and the occasion should have been used to weld the Gascons more firmly into an English-led unity. But the prince saw the moment as one in which all the glory was for him and his family, not Gascony. Edward of Woodstock had all the courage and martial talent of Edward I and Edward III, but his autocratic att.i.tude and diplomatic skills were reminiscent of Edward II.

Edward"s third son, John of Gaunt, was destined for a northern palatinate, secured on the inheritance of his wife, Blanche, one of the two daughters of the late duke of Lancaster. In April 1362 1362 his inheritance doubled, on the unexpected death of his sister-in-law, Maud. This meant that all of the huge palatinate lordship of the duchy of Lancaster - the richest lordship in England - pa.s.sed to him. Edward had not expected this to happen, and it is possible that he viewed it as unfortunate, as it gave John a greater income and a larger inheritance than his elder brother Lionel could have hoped to enjoy. John was also the sort of man who made enemies for life. Shortly after inheriting the duchy he was accused of poisoning his sister-in-law. Considerable amounts of money and power were hardly likely to teach him to be more circ.u.mspect. Nevertheless, from Edward"s point of view it was better that such a ma.s.sive inheritance came to his son rather than to someone outside the royal family. And Edward may have recognised that it might yield some unexpected advantages. He had at various times in the past discussed the possibility of John becoming the heir of David II of Scotland. If that were to become a reality, it would help secure the border, as John of Gaunt would not only be king north of the border but the largest landowner in the area directly south of it. As it happened, when the matter was discussed again in November his inheritance doubled, on the unexpected death of his sister-in-law, Maud. This meant that all of the huge palatinate lordship of the duchy of Lancaster - the richest lordship in England - pa.s.sed to him. Edward had not expected this to happen, and it is possible that he viewed it as unfortunate, as it gave John a greater income and a larger inheritance than his elder brother Lionel could have hoped to enjoy. John was also the sort of man who made enemies for life. Shortly after inheriting the duchy he was accused of poisoning his sister-in-law. Considerable amounts of money and power were hardly likely to teach him to be more circ.u.mspect. Nevertheless, from Edward"s point of view it was better that such a ma.s.sive inheritance came to his son rather than to someone outside the royal family. And Edward may have recognised that it might yield some unexpected advantages. He had at various times in the past discussed the possibility of John becoming the heir of David II of Scotland. If that were to become a reality, it would help secure the border, as John of Gaunt would not only be king north of the border but the largest landowner in the area directly south of it. As it happened, when the matter was discussed again in November 1363, 1363, it was ruled out by the Scottish parliament, whose members were adamant in their view that they should not have John or any of Edward"s sons for their king. it was ruled out by the Scottish parliament, whose members were adamant in their view that they should not have John or any of Edward"s sons for their king.

Edward"s plans for his fourth surviving son, Edmund, were concentrated on the Low Countries, and in particular Flanders. His idea was that Edmund should marry the daughter and heiress of Count Louis of Flanders, but in order for this to happen, he needed to persuade the pope. In 1362 1362 Pope Innocent VI died, to be replaced by the pious and studious abbot of Ma.r.s.eilles, who became Urban V Even this most conscientious of religious leaders was unable to overlook the fact that it would be much more in France"s interest for the heiress of Flanders to marry a French rather than an English prince, and so Edward"s plans were thwarted over and over again. Pope Innocent VI died, to be replaced by the pious and studious abbot of Ma.r.s.eilles, who became Urban V Even this most conscientious of religious leaders was unable to overlook the fact that it would be much more in France"s interest for the heiress of Flanders to marry a French rather than an English prince, and so Edward"s plans were thwarted over and over again.

Edward"s fifth son, Thomas, was still young, only seven in 1362, 1362, and as yet remained outside Edward"s pan-European dynastic ambitions. His last daughter, Isabella, also remained outside his scheme. Her role would of course lie in being a bride to a ruler rather than taking a role in government. Edward had proposed a series of matches for her, but none had succeeded. The count of Flanders had at one point been about to marry her but that had fallen through. Then, in and as yet remained outside Edward"s pan-European dynastic ambitions. His last daughter, Isabella, also remained outside his scheme. Her role would of course lie in being a bride to a ruler rather than taking a role in government. Edward had proposed a series of matches for her, but none had succeeded. The count of Flanders had at one point been about to marry her but that had fallen through. Then, in 1351, 1351, at the age of nineteen, she had simply refused to go through with a marriage to Bernard, the heir of the Gascon Lord Albret. It was her own decision. Edward had declared his readiness that she - "our very dear eldest daughter, whom we have loved with special affection" - should marry the heir, but she refused to embark on the boat waiting to take her to Gascony. Extraordinarily, Edward did not hold this against her. Later in the at the age of nineteen, she had simply refused to go through with a marriage to Bernard, the heir of the Gascon Lord Albret. It was her own decision. Edward had declared his readiness that she - "our very dear eldest daughter, whom we have loved with special affection" - should marry the heir, but she refused to embark on the boat waiting to take her to Gascony. Extraordinarily, Edward did not hold this against her. Later in the 1350s 1350s he gave her annuities and rewards, and she was more constantly with him than any of his other children. It seems that she was set on a love-match, like her elder brother. In he gave her annuities and rewards, and she was more constantly with him than any of his other children. It seems that she was set on a love-match, like her elder brother. In 1365, 1365, aged thirty-three, she finally chose Enguerrand de Coucy, a lord in England as a hostage for the fulfilment of the Treaty of Bretigny. Edward acquiesced to her desire, and generously endowed de Coucy with a tide and made him a Knight of the Garter, but Enguerrand"s heart never lay in England, and, once the initial pa.s.sion with Isabella had worn off, they separated. He went to fight in Italy and she remained with her two daughters at her father"s court in England. aged thirty-three, she finally chose Enguerrand de Coucy, a lord in England as a hostage for the fulfilment of the Treaty of Bretigny. Edward acquiesced to her desire, and generously endowed de Coucy with a tide and made him a Knight of the Garter, but Enguerrand"s heart never lay in England, and, once the initial pa.s.sion with Isabella had worn off, they separated. He went to fight in Italy and she remained with her two daughters at her father"s court in England.

On 13 13 November November 1362 1362 Edward finally celebrated his fiftieth birthday. To mark the occasion he summoned a parliament, almost entirely consisting of commoners. He issued a general pardon to wrongdoers throughout the realm in commemoration of his jubilee. More importantly for the pet.i.tioners present, Edward granted a new Statute of Purveyance. In it, all requisitioning of goods for the use of the royal household was done away with except that expressly for the king and queen. The tide "purveyor" was removed also, being changed to "buyer". This more clearly emphasised that people should be paid for the goods seized at the time they were requisitioned. In addition, restrictions were placed on the buyers for the royal household, rendering them liable to arrest if their behaviour was not deemed to be up to standard. Edward obviously intended this legislation to be a gift to his people. Likewise his confirmation that a parliament should be held every year. The same benevolent intention lay behind his promises that royal officers (escheators) who took wards" estates into royal custody should not charge fees, that fines for breaking the Statute of Labourers should be handed over to parliament, and that the subsidy of wool would not const.i.tute a precedent for indirect taxation in peacetime. Whether or not the representatives at Edward"s jubilee parliament were grateful we cannot say, but the legislation flowed, and it flowed in the commons" favour. Edward finally celebrated his fiftieth birthday. To mark the occasion he summoned a parliament, almost entirely consisting of commoners. He issued a general pardon to wrongdoers throughout the realm in commemoration of his jubilee. More importantly for the pet.i.tioners present, Edward granted a new Statute of Purveyance. In it, all requisitioning of goods for the use of the royal household was done away with except that expressly for the king and queen. The tide "purveyor" was removed also, being changed to "buyer". This more clearly emphasised that people should be paid for the goods seized at the time they were requisitioned. In addition, restrictions were placed on the buyers for the royal household, rendering them liable to arrest if their behaviour was not deemed to be up to standard. Edward obviously intended this legislation to be a gift to his people. Likewise his confirmation that a parliament should be held every year. The same benevolent intention lay behind his promises that royal officers (escheators) who took wards" estates into royal custody should not charge fees, that fines for breaking the Statute of Labourers should be handed over to parliament, and that the subsidy of wool would not const.i.tute a precedent for indirect taxation in peacetime. Whether or not the representatives at Edward"s jubilee parliament were grateful we cannot say, but the legislation flowed, and it flowed in the commons" favour.

The 1362 1362 parliament is today remembered for one piece of legislation above all others: "pleas shall be pleaded in the English tongue and enrolled in Latin". This is the first piece of legislation which officially recognised the English language. Since the eleventh century the language of the n.o.bility had been French, and the language of the courts had generally been French, translated into Latin for the permanent record. As this new legislation now recognised, it was not right that men and women should be tried in a tongue they did not understand. But its significance was more than just fairness. The Statute of Pleading, as it was called, gave official recognition to English. It was described as the "Tongue of the Country", and was thus accorded the status of a national language. In doing this, Edward recognised that a great change was taking place. Whereas in parliament is today remembered for one piece of legislation above all others: "pleas shall be pleaded in the English tongue and enrolled in Latin". This is the first piece of legislation which officially recognised the English language. Since the eleventh century the language of the n.o.bility had been French, and the language of the courts had generally been French, translated into Latin for the permanent record. As this new legislation now recognised, it was not right that men and women should be tried in a tongue they did not understand. But its significance was more than just fairness. The Statute of Pleading, as it was called, gave official recognition to English. It was described as the "Tongue of the Country", and was thus accorded the status of a national language. In doing this, Edward recognised that a great change was taking place. Whereas in 1300 1300 almost no one of importance in England spoke English - it being very definitely the language of the peasantry - by almost no one of importance in England spoke English - it being very definitely the language of the peasantry - by 1400 1400 almost everyone of importance almost everyone of importance did did speak English. Edward himself spoke it and used it in his mottoes. The duke of Lancaster spoke it. Edward"s grandson, Edward of York, translated Gaston Phoebus"s treatise on hunting into English.27 In speak English. Edward himself spoke it and used it in his mottoes. The duke of Lancaster spoke it. Edward"s grandson, Edward of York, translated Gaston Phoebus"s treatise on hunting into English.27 In 1362 1362 John Wycliffe - the man who first translated the New Testament into English - was Master of Balliol College. His opponent, the gifted Simon Langham - abbot of Westminster, archbishop of Canterbury from John Wycliffe - the man who first translated the New Testament into English - was Master of Balliol College. His opponent, the gifted Simon Langham - abbot of Westminster, archbishop of Canterbury from 1366, 1366, and in turn both Chancellor and Treasurer - spoke English. Chaucer - the first great poet since Saxon times to write in the English language -was in royal service. Strikingly, from this date on until the end of the reign, parliament was addressed at its opening in English (three times by Langham). By the and in turn both Chancellor and Treasurer - spoke English. Chaucer - the first great poet since Saxon times to write in the English language -was in royal service. Strikingly, from this date on until the end of the reign, parliament was addressed at its opening in English (three times by Langham). By the 1380s 1380s English had supplanted French as the language used in grammar schools. English was coming to the fore, and one of the reasons for its speedy rise was its patronage and use by eminent men, including the king"s ministers and members of the English royal family. English had supplanted French as the language used in grammar schools. English was coming to the fore, and one of the reasons for its speedy rise was its patronage and use by eminent men, including the king"s ministers and members of the English royal family.

Just before the end of the parliament, on the actual day of his birthday, Edward promoted his second, third and fourth sons to new, high tides. Lionel became duke of Clarence, in reference to his inheritance of the Clare estates, which, combined with the earldom of Ulster, made him by far the greatest landowner in Ireland. John became duke of Lancaster, acquiring the tide of Edward"s late general as well as his estates. And Edmund became earl of Cambridge. And of course there was a great feast. On his fiftieth birthday Edward revelled in his great fortune by sharing a little of it out amongst his children, his friends and his people.

At Edward"s birth, the author of the Life of Edward the Second Life of Edward the Second had expressed the hope that Edward would "follow the industry of King Henry the second, the well-known valour of King Richard, reach the age of King Henry [the third], revive the wisdom of King Edward [the first] and remind us of the physical strength and comeliness of his father". On his fiftieth birthday Edward could be said to have fulfilled all of the chronicler"s hopes for him except reaching the age of Henry III (who lived to sixty-five). But if he looked in the mirror, what did he see? A man at the height of his royal authority, groomed to look the part, admired, famous and feared by his enemies; but also a man who had now achieved his life"s ambitions. The eyes were still bright, the face was still handsome and the mind was still strong, but there was nothing left to yearn for. had expressed the hope that Edward would "follow the industry of King Henry the second, the well-known valour of King Richard, reach the age of King Henry [the third], revive the wisdom of King Edward [the first] and remind us of the physical strength and comeliness of his father". On his fiftieth birthday Edward could be said to have fulfilled all of the chronicler"s hopes for him except reaching the age of Henry III (who lived to sixty-five). But if he looked in the mirror, what did he see? A man at the height of his royal authority, groomed to look the part, admired, famous and feared by his enemies; but also a man who had now achieved his life"s ambitions. The eyes were still bright, the face was still handsome and the mind was still strong, but there was nothing left to yearn for.

It would be too soon in an evaluation of Edward"s life to say that his regnal authority was weakening. In the mid-136os that authority was stronger than ever. But the key thread of his kingship - his vision of what kingship could and should be, which had given his life and reign such meaning and dynamism - was now all but extinguished. This has nothing to do with failure, and much to do with success. Edward in that authority was stronger than ever. But the key thread of his kingship - his vision of what kingship could and should be, which had given his life and reign such meaning and dynamism - was now all but extinguished. This has nothing to do with failure, and much to do with success. Edward in 1365 1365 resembled the self-penned character portrait of the late duke of Lancaster. Years before he had danced and tourneyed with the best of them but now he resisted all but the occasional pa.s.sing fancy. Once he had yearned for victories and accolades; now he preferred to feast himself on salmon and strong sauces, and to drink Gascon wine to join in the merriment of the court feasts. Where were the men with whom he used to drink, laugh and urge on to glory? Where were William Montagu, Reginald Cobham, Thomas Dagworth and the earls of Huntingdon, Northampton and Lancaster? Even the friends who were still alive were not with him now. They were old and retired, gone to their estates to tell tales of their glory days. resembled the self-penned character portrait of the late duke of Lancaster. Years before he had danced and tourneyed with the best of them but now he resisted all but the occasional pa.s.sing fancy. Once he had yearned for victories and accolades; now he preferred to feast himself on salmon and strong sauces, and to drink Gascon wine to join in the merriment of the court feasts. Where were the men with whom he used to drink, laugh and urge on to glory? Where were William Montagu, Reginald Cobham, Thomas Dagworth and the earls of Huntingdon, Northampton and Lancaster? Even the friends who were still alive were not with him now. They were old and retired, gone to their estates to tell tales of their glory days.

The cruelty of kingship gradually became apparent to Edward. His va.s.sals - even the heroes among them - could grow old, withdraw from society, and die in relative peace. But not him; not the king. Too much depended on him. Edward could not grow old without growing weak, and if he grew weak, then England grew weak. Any of his earls could gracefully decline to joust, and claim middle age as an excuse. The king had to be seen still to be prepared for war and to risk his life, if need be. It was incongruous, especially now that he was in his fifties and growing fatter. A favourite red velvet belt with gold and pearls had to be sent back to his tailor in 1363 1363 to be made larger. New war armour was made for him in the same year. Edward wanted little to do with stratagems, war, the pope, or any other challenge. He had earned a little peace, surely? He wanted to complete his great buildings, to spend time with Philippa, to listen to his minstrels, to hear the chiming of his clocks, to look at his paintings, to show off his jewels, to hunt in summer and to loose his falcons in winter, and to be rowed in the royal barge down to Sheppey where his new castle was being built for him. to be made larger. New war armour was made for him in the same year. Edward wanted little to do with stratagems, war, the pope, or any other challenge. He had earned a little peace, surely? He wanted to complete his great buildings, to spend time with Philippa, to listen to his minstrels, to hear the chiming of his clocks, to look at his paintings, to show off his jewels, to hunt in summer and to loose his falcons in winter, and to be rowed in the royal barge down to Sheppey where his new castle was being built for him.

This sudden decline of ambition may be attributed to Edward"s age, or his changing nature, but we should also consider his state of health. As mentioned in a previous chapter, this is a particularly difficult subject area. For instance, we cannot simply rely on occasional payments for medicines to know when he was ill. Edward maintained a permanent medical staff as a part of his household, and so most medical functions would have fallen within the scope of their regular duties, requiring no extra payments. Similarly we cannot a.s.sume from the continued activity of government that Edward was physically well. Most work was delegated, and what was not depended only on the king"s ability to issue an order, he did not necessarily have to get out of bed. But there is one way we can make a rough estimate of Edward"s state of health: we can a.s.sess how many medical pract.i.tioners Edward was employing from outside outside his household. Often these men were not employed but rewarded, and through tracing these rewards and gifts we do get an idea of how many "second opinions" were being sought on his medical condition. Apart from the his household. Often these men were not employed but rewarded, and through tracing these rewards and gifts we do get an idea of how many "second opinions" were being sought on his medical condition. Apart from the 1349-50 1349-50 plague year, no pract.i.tioner was rewarded as a second "king"s physician" until the years plague year, no pract.i.tioner was rewarded as a second "king"s physician" until the years 1364-67, 1364-67, when John Paladyn and John Glaston were both recorded in this capacity. A second physician seems to have been employed regularly in the period when John Paladyn and John Glaston were both recorded in this capacity. A second physician seems to have been employed regularly in the period 1368-70 1368-70 and several were employed in the and several were employed in the 1370s. 1370s. As for surgeons, there are various payments to non-household surgeons in As for surgeons, there are various payments to non-household surgeons in 1359, 1362 1359, 1362 and from and from 1368 1368 to his death. It would appear safest to conclude that Edward"s health was already suffering, perhaps intermittently, from to his death. It would appear safest to conclude that Edward"s health was already suffering, perhaps intermittently, from 1363-64 1363-64 if not earlier. if not earlier.

If Edward was indeed ill as early as 1363 1363 he was not letting it show. No chronicler records his sickness at this time. Nor could he have played the ailing king if he felt inclined; warrior status does not admit of physical weakness. And as the payment for war armour shows, he was still having to play the part of the warrior-king. When in November he was not letting it show. No chronicler records his sickness at this time. Nor could he have played the ailing king if he felt inclined; warrior status does not admit of physical weakness. And as the payment for war armour shows, he was still having to play the part of the warrior-king. When in November 1363 1363 he and Philippa played host to three kings - those of France, Cyprus and Scotland - a great tournament was held in their honour at Smithfield: it was simply what was expected. The regularity of royal tournaments may be considered a second check on the king"s health. Jousts continued to take place but whereas in he and Philippa played host to three kings - those of France, Cyprus and Scotland - a great tournament was held in their honour at Smithfield: it was simply what was expected. The regularity of royal tournaments may be considered a second check on the king"s health. Jousts continued to take place but whereas in 1348 1348 there had been a royal tournament there had been a royal tournament every every month, now it was rare for there to be two in a year. Where was the pleasure in patronising events which only showed how much younger and stronger the new crop of inexperienced youthful strangers were? But such events could not be given up entirely. That would be admitting of weakness, and unkingly behaviour. month, now it was rare for there to be two in a year. Where was the pleasure in patronising events which only showed how much younger and stronger the new crop of inexperienced youthful strangers were? But such events could not be given up entirely. That would be admitting of weakness, and unkingly behaviour.

Edward"s favourite pastimes in the 1360s 1360s were hunting and falconry, and he now began to spend more time pursuing these. In the early were hunting and falconry, and he now began to spend more time pursuing these. In the early 1350s 1350s he had kept a staff of six huntsmen and seven falconers, but in he had kept a staff of six huntsmen and seven falconers, but in 1360 1360 he and Philippa maintained thirty-one huntsmen and twenty-three falconers, and it is unlikely that the total number engaged in serving their hunting activities dropped below thirty for the rest of the decade. There were hunting parks attached to most of the royal houses and castles. Edward spent about he and Philippa maintained thirty-one huntsmen and twenty-three falconers, and it is unlikely that the total number engaged in serving their hunting activities dropped below thirty for the rest of the decade. There were hunting parks attached to most of the royal houses and castles. Edward spent about 80 80 per year on his hunting dogs alone. He kept fifty or sixty birds of prey - gerfalcons, goshawks, tiercels and lannerets - at his mews, near Charing. When we consider the cost of obtaining the birds in the first place, and then feeding them at a rate of at least a penny a day, and the wages of the many keepers and trainers, and their official robes, Edward"s expenditure on hunting can be totalled at around per year on his hunting dogs alone. He kept fifty or sixty birds of prey - gerfalcons, goshawks, tiercels and lannerets - at his mews, near Charing. When we consider the cost of obtaining the birds in the first place, and then feeding them at a rate of at least a penny a day, and the wages of the many keepers and trainers, and their official robes, Edward"s expenditure on hunting can be totalled at around 600 600 each year, an average baron"s annual income. In each year, an average baron"s annual income. In 1367-68 1367-68 he spent this sum on his falcons alone. This was much more than other medieval English kings, and much more than he himself spent in earlier and later decades. he spent this sum on his falcons alone. This was much more than other medieval English kings, and much more than he himself spent in earlier and later decades.

It is perhaps in parliament that we can most clearly detect the lessening of political ambition. After the generous and ground-breaking legislation of 1362, 1362, that of the that of the 1363 1363 parliament was highly conservative. Edward attempted to set prices for goods, trying to legislate against inflation. He and his officials set down in codified laws exactly what a servant was allowed to wear and eat, and what craftsmen and yeomen were allowed, what lesser gentlemen and their wives and families were allowed, and what merchants, knights, clergymen and ploughmen were allowed. This second sumptuary law was futile, but it shows the conservatism of Edward"s mind in the mid parliament was highly conservative. Edward attempted to set prices for goods, trying to legislate against inflation. He and his officials set down in codified laws exactly what a servant was allowed to wear and eat, and what craftsmen and yeomen were allowed, what lesser gentlemen and their wives and families were allowed, and what merchants, knights, clergymen and ploughmen were allowed. This second sumptuary law was futile, but it shows the conservatism of Edward"s mind in the mid-i36os. This was simply how he and his advisers (who drafted the legislation) believed society should be, in a hierarchical ladder from the king down to the servants. At the same time as he was legislating that servants and people of low status could not wear silk or furs, or any embroidered material, he himself was paying hundreds of pounds for the most lavishly embroidered and fur-trimmed clothes. While stipulating that husbandmen should eat no more than two dishes per day, he ordered that eight dishes were to be set before him at every mealtime, and five before the lords with him, three before his gentlemen, and two before his grooms. Even if one takes the view that he was trying to encourage moderation of the ranks of society who felt bound to compete with each other, buying finer clothes than they needed and feasting to excess, his policy of restraint has to be seen as conservative. This was simply how he and his advisers (who drafted the legislation) believed society should be, in a hierarchical ladder from the king down to the servants. At the same time as he was legislating that servants and people of low status could not wear silk or furs, or any embroidered material, he himself was paying hundreds of pounds for the most lavishly embroidered and fur-trimmed clothes. While stipulating that husbandmen should eat no more than two dishes per day, he ordered that eight dishes were to be set before him at every mealtime, and five before the lords with him, three before his gentlemen, and two before his grooms. Even if one takes the view that he was trying to encourage moderation of the ranks of society who felt bound to compete with each other, buying finer clothes than they needed and feasting to excess, his policy of restraint has to be seen as conservative.

Even more telling was the parliament of 1364. 1364. It never happened. Although Edward had agreed as recently as his fiftieth birthday that a parliament would take place annually, the meeting due to take place in his thirty-seventh year on the throne did not actually meet until It never happened. Although Edward had agreed as recently as his fiftieth birthday that a parliament would take place annually, the meeting due to take place in his thirty-seventh year on the throne did not actually meet until 20 20 January January 1365, 1365, four days before the end of the regnal year. Moreover it continued over into the next regnal year, and so Edward managed to avoid having to hold another until May four days before the end of the regnal year. Moreover it continued over into the next regnal year, and so Edward managed to avoid having to hold another until May 1366, 1366, and that was a brief meeting in which legislation was not discussed. In and that was a brief meeting in which legislation was not discussed. In 1367 1367 he declined to summon a parliament at all, so no more statutes were enrolled until May he declined to summon a parliament at all, so no more statutes were enrolled until May 1368. 1368. This is hardly a sign of eagerness on Edward"s part to engage with parliament, or to use the pet.i.tions to address the needs and complaints of his people. And some of the legislation that he This is hardly a sign of eagerness on Edward"s part to engage with parliament, or to use the pet.i.tions to address the needs and complaints of his people. And some of the legislation that he did did pa.s.s was strategically self-defeating. Over the course of pa.s.s was strategically self-defeating. Over the course of 1363-65 1363-65 he renewed his attempts to establish monopolies for trade. In he renewed his attempts to establish monopolies for trade. In 1364 1364 he tried to reverse the legislation of he tried to reverse the legislation of 1361 1361 providing for the judicial powers of JPs.41 And he renewed his attack upon the pope. Although Urban V was probably the most pious of all the French pontiffs, Edward"s frustration over his failure to grant permission for the marriages of his sons made him reissue the Statutes of Praemunire and Provisors in January providing for the judicial powers of JPs.41 And he renewed his attack upon the pope. Although Urban V was probably the most pious of all the French pontiffs, Edward"s frustration over his failure to grant permission for the marriages of his sons made him reissue the Statutes of Praemunire and Provisors in January 1365, 1365, ending any chance he had of coaxing Urban V to compromise over the war. Urban finally gave in to Edward"s demands that there should be an English cardinal, and awarded Simon Langham a red cap in ending any chance he had of coaxing Urban V to compromise over the war. Urban finally gave in to Edward"s demands that there should be an English cardinal, and awarded Simon Langham a red cap in 1368, 1368, but this was due to Urban"s judgement, not Edward"s pressure. Edward in fact complained about the appointment. but this was due to Urban"s judgement, not Edward"s pressure. Edward in fact complained about the appointment.

It was not that Edward had suddenly turned into a neglectful king, it was simply that the ambition to be a better king was no longer there. The emphasis had turned from the king seeking success to one whose measure of success was simply to get through each day in a kingly fashion, and to enjoy himself if he had the chance. As a result, he wanted nothing much to change politically. It was in this spirit that he ordained that every man should practise with the longbow. It made perfect sense to encourage the English to continue their domination of projectile-based warfare, but Edward"s motive was to ensure that things stayed as they had been in 1346. 1346. In In 1366, 1366, he authorised the Statute of Kilkenny, negotiated by his son Lionel, by which Ireland was divided between those whom Edward wanted to command and those who were beyond English control. Again, in the circ.u.mstances this was sensible, but it marked the introduction of a policy of conservatism. The young Edward would have personally tried to bring the whole country under his control. This conservatism did not necessarily lead to bad legislation. In one statute pa.s.sed at this time, Edward ordered that all goldsmiths had to identify their works with their own specific maker"s mark, the origin of the hallmark. We have reason to be grateful; but the motivation was essentially conservative, to keep things as they had been in his heyday. he authorised the Statute of Kilkenny, negotiated by his son Lionel, by which Ireland was divided between those whom Edward wanted to command and those who were beyond English control. Again, in the circ.u.mstances this was sensible, but it marked the introduction of a policy of conservatism. The young Edward would have personally tried to bring the whole country under his control. This conservatism did not necessarily lead to bad legislation. In one statute pa.s.sed at this time, Edward ordered that all goldsmiths had to identify their works with their own specific maker"s mark, the origin of the hallmark. We have reason to be grateful; but the motivation was essentially conservative, to keep things as they had been in his heyday.

Edward was not just resting on his laurels, he was preparing to retire on them. He usually confined his movements to the area of the Thames, travelling by the royal barge. One of the reasons for this mode of transport was probably his own declining health. Another was undoubtedly Philippa"s medical condition. From 1365 1365 grants made in her name made provision for the eventuality of her dying before the grantee, and her suffering was probably so great in grants made in her name made provision for the eventuality of her dying before the grantee, and her suffering was probably so great in 1365 1365 that she could not travel easily except by barge and litter.43 It may be that she never properly recovered from the injuries sustained when falling from a horse while hunting with Edward in the summer of that she could not travel easily except by barge and litter.43 It may be that she never properly recovered from the injuries sustained when falling from a horse while hunting with Edward in the summer of 1358; 1358; she was making preparations for her tomb as early as she was making preparations for her tomb as early as 1362. 1362. In In 1366 1366 the king"s own health took a turn for the worse. Payments were made to an apothecary by the king"s physician for medicines for him. That summer he left his household for long periods at Windsor Castle and spent considerable lengths of time quietly at his hunting lodges in the New Forest with Philippa, receiving special visitors - such as "the son of the king of India" - but otherwise laying low, avoiding too much pomp. the king"s own health took a turn for the worse. Payments were made to an apothecary by the king"s physician for medicines for him. That summer he left his household for long periods at Windsor Castle and spent considerable lengths of time quietly at his hunting lodges in the New Forest with Philippa, receiving special visitors - such as "the son of the king of India" - but otherwise laying low, avoiding too much pomp.

Philippa"s injuries and illnesses go some way to explain one big change in Edward"s life. Until now he had never recognised any illegitimate offspring, and may well have had none. Such was the strength of his relationship with his wife that his dalliances with other women - presuming that he had some - had been restrained, even though he had encouraged a culture of intense s.e.xual excitement at his court. But now a girl appeared before him who caught his attention and, having caught it, did her best to keep it. She was one of Philippa"s ladies-in-waiting. Edward had of course paid attention to Philippa"s female staff in earlier years, giving them grants and presents. The merging of their households in 1360 1360 had brought him into daily contact with them. But to this girl, Alice Perrers, who had - we are told - "a seductive voice" he gave much more than grants and presents. About had brought him into daily contact with them. But to this girl, Alice Perrers, who had - we are told - "a seductive voice" he gave much more than grants and presents. About 1364 1364 she bore him his first known illegitimate child. she bore him his first known illegitimate child.

Alice Perrers is the most famous royal mistress between Henry II"s "Fair Rosamund" (Rosamund Clifford) and Edward IV"s Elizabeth Lambert (better known as Jane Sh.o.r.e). Arguably she eclipses them both. What she is remembered for is not her captivating beauty or her delightful wit but her avarice and her manipulation. But in considering how her relationship with Edward began we must lay aside this aspect of her behaviour and remember that in 1363 1363 she was just a s.e.xually-desirable servant at court. When it was realised that she was pregnant with Edward"s child, she left. She gave birth, perhaps at Southery in Norfolk, to a son who became known as John of Southeray or Surrey. When she returned to court, she received presents and grants, but as yet these were at the king"s will. The images of the self-interested, calculating wh.o.r.e and the bewitching she-devil were still a long way from the public mind. she was just a s.e.xually-desirable servant at court. When it was realised that she was pregnant with Edward"s child, she left. She gave birth, perhaps at Southery in Norfolk, to a son who became known as John of Southeray or Surrey. When she returned to court, she received presents and grants, but as yet these were at the king"s will. The images of the self-interested, calculating wh.o.r.e and the bewitching she-devil were still a long way from the public mind.

If Edward took a mistress while his wife was slipping into her final illness, we should not be too surprised. He had always had the opportunity to command the s.e.xual availability of women, and adultery on the part of husbands was not considered a great sin. With Edward it is far more surprising that he had not done so more often. He was clearly a potent sire, and therefore if he had had many mistresses, we would expect him to have had a string of illegitimate children, like Henry I (who had more than twenty) and John (who had more than seven). Henry I and John had had these children by a number of women; they were multiple philanderers. Edward III apparently was not. If he was not always loyal to his wife then he was far more circ.u.mspect in his romantic interludes than most previous kings. Therefore it is particularly interesting that he now proved loyal also to Alice. She was not paid off but allowed to come and go from court. This is what is strange about this illicit royal union. Edward kept her, and had two more children with her. This was unheard-of in the 1360s. 1360s. The monastic chronicler Walsingham decided she must have bewitched Edward in order to secure his affections. She may have done, but it was not necessarily in the way that the monk supposed. The monastic chronicler Walsingham decided she must have bewitched Edward in order to secure his affections. She may have done, but it was not necessarily in the way that the monk supposed.

Throughout the 1360s 1360s - not just in the plague years - Edward lost those close to him. His sister Joan died in September - not just in the plague years - Edward lost those close to him. His sister Joan died in September 1362, 1362, two months before his jubilee. His daughter-in-law Elizabeth de Burgh, Lionel"s wife, died the following year. His companion Knights of the Garter died with sad regularity: Miles Stapelton (a founder member) and Richard de la Vache died in two months before his jubilee. His daughter-in-law Elizabeth de Burgh, Lionel"s wife, died the following year. His companion Knights of the Garter died with sad regularity: Miles Stapelton (a founder member) and Richard de la Vache died in 1364 1364 and and 1366. 1366. The great soldier Sir Thomas Ughtred, who had been present at Dupplin Moor, had served as an admiral and as a Justice of the Peace, and had fought in all of Edward"s wars, died in The great soldier Sir Thomas Ughtred, who had been present at Dupplin Moor, had served as an admiral and as a Justice of the Peace, and had fought in all of Edward"s wars, died in 1365. 1365. The men who came to take their places were all young, nearly thirty years younger than Edward. They were promoted because of their great inheritances or, in the case of Enguerrand de Coucy, because he was betrothed to Edward"s daughter. As he walked around his newly completed works at Winsdor and Sheen, Edward must have been saddened that the friends with whom he had laughed and jousted when he had ordered their construction were now gone, replaced by men with whom he had little personal affinity. The castle on the Isle of Sheppey in particular was a testament to his military vision, but who was left alive with whom to share the subtle nuances of military design? He dedicated it instead to Philippa and named the town and castle Queenborough in her honour. The men who came to take their places were all young, nearly thirty years younger than Edward. They were promoted because of their great inheritances or, in the case of Enguerrand de Coucy, because he was betrothed to Edward"s daughter. As he walked around his newly completed works at Winsdor and Sheen, Edward must have been saddened that the friends with whom he had laughed and jousted when he had ordered their construction were now gone, replaced by men with whom he had little personal affinity. The castle on the Isle of Sheppey in particular was a testament to his military vision, but who was left alive with whom to share the subtle nuances of military design? He dedicated it instead to Philippa and named the town and castle Queenborough in her honour.

The most significant death of this period was that of King John of France on 8 8 April April 1364. 1364. He had dutifully returned to England in January - when his ransom had not materialised - and had fallen mortally ill. Herein lay a problem for Edward. Obviously no more of the ransom would be paid, but, far more importantly, John had not formally renounced sovereignty of the agreed territories before his death. That extra addition to the Treaty of Bretigny had never been ratified. The responsibility for the renunciation fell on the dauphin, who became Charles V. Charles had proved very reluctant to acknowledge any ceding of territory, and now saw an opportunity to capitalise on his father"s failure. He could hardly do worse on the field of battle, and, while peace continued, he could rebuild his fortunes and those of France. Any hope of the formal renunciation being made, and a permanent settlement, was thus extinguished. He had dutifully returned to England in January - when his ransom had not materialised - and had fallen mortally ill. Herein lay a problem for Edward. Obviously no more of the ransom would be paid, but, far more importantly, John had not formally renounced sovereignty of the agreed territories before his death. That extra addition to the Treaty of Bretigny had never been ratified. The responsibility for the renunciation fell on the dauphin, who became Charles V. Charles had proved very reluctant to acknowledge any ceding of territory, and now saw an opportunity to capitalise on his father"s failure. He could hardly do worse on the field of battle, and, while peace continued, he could rebuild his fortunes and those of France. Any hope of the formal renunciation being made, and a permanent settlement, was thus extinguished.

The problems - although immediately suspected - did not immediately become political reality. In fact the cause of the renewed hostilities came from a quite unexpected direction. In 1362 1362 Edward had agreed an alliance with King Pedro of Castile, known to history by his telling soubriquet "the Cruel". At first Pedro had doubted whether it was in his best interests to ally with Edward. His sole purpose was to protect himself against a strong alliance between Aragon and France. But after the death of the French king, he made his mind up, and ratified the Anglo-Castilian treaty. It was just as well for him that he did, for in Edward had agreed an alliance with King Pedro of Castile, known to history by his telling soubriquet "the Cruel". At first Pedro had doubted whether it was in his best interests to ally with Edward. His sole purpose was to protect himself against a strong alliance between Aragon and France. But after the death of the French king, he made his mind up, and ratified the Anglo-Castilian treaty. It was just as well for him that he did, for in 1365 1365 the French hit upon a solution to the English unofficial armies, or "companies", which were ravaging their territories. The great French commander Bertrand du Guesclin offered them the opportunity to attack Castile in the name of Enrique de Trastamara. Back in England Edward realised the danger. English mercenaries were about to fight against his ally. To stop them he issued orders on the French hit upon a solution to the English unofficial armies, or "companies", which were ravaging their territories. The great French commander Bertrand du Guesclin offered them the opportunity to attack Castile in the name of Enrique de Trastamara. Back in England Edward realised the danger. English mercenaries were about to fight against his ally. To stop them he issued orders on 6 6 December December 1365 1365 that no Englishmen were to take arms against Pedro. But his orders fell on deaf ears. The English mercenaries commanded by Sir Hugh Calveley, Sir Nicholas Dagworth and Sir William Elmham proceeded with impunity into Castile, under the pretence that they were going on crusade. By the end of March they and du Guesclin had done their work, and Enrique de Trastamara had been crowned at Burgos, the capital. Pedro fled to Bordeaux, a king in name alone. that no Englishmen were to take arms against Pedro. But his orders fell on deaf ears. The English mercenaries commanded by Sir Hugh Calveley, Sir Nicholas Dagworth and Sir William Elmham proceeded with impunity into Castile, under the pretence that they were going on crusade. By the end of March they and du Guesclin had done their work, and Enrique de Trastamara had been crowned at Burgos, the capital. Pedro fled to Bordeaux, a king in name alone.

Although it was the prince who agreed the mission to reinstate Pedro, there is no doubt that it was with Edward"s full approval. Edward felt bound to honour his treaty. The matter was discussed at the brief May 1366 1366 parliament, and Edward sent John of Gaunt to the prince with reinforcements and financial support. By this time the English mercenaries, realising that the prince was going to march into Castile, were only too eager to be paid off. On parliament, and Edward sent John of Gaunt to the prince with reinforcements and financial support. By this time the English mercenaries, realising that the prince was going to march into Castile, were only too eager to be paid off. On 3 3 April April 1367, 1367, at Najera,- the prince and his Gascon army inflicted a crushing defeat on Enrique de Trastamara, who almost alone escaped the carnage and arrest of his army. Du Guesclin himself was captured, as well as Marshal Audrehem, whom the prince had previously captured and ransomed once already, at Poitiers. at Najera,- the prince and his Gascon army inflicted a crushing defeat on Enrique de Trastamara, who almost alone escaped the carnage and arrest of his army. Du Guesclin himself was captured, as well as Marshal Audrehem, whom the prince had previously captured and ransomed once already, at Poitiers.

It was a stunning military victory, but the prince had terribly miscalculated. Najera is one of the clearest examples in medieval history of a tactical victory which proved to be a strategic defeat. For when the campaign was over, and the prince"s clerks worked how much it had cost, the total was 2.7 2.7 million florins million florins (405,000). (405,000). There was no hope of regaining such a huge amount of money from impoverished Castile. Worse, Pedro the Cruel saw all the prisoners as traitors, not deserving of ransoms, and murdered as many as he could despite the prince"s protestations that these men were valuable to him. Although the prince held a great victory feast when he returned to Bordeaux, in reality he had plunged his princ.i.p.ality into chronic debt, having regained about one-eighth of what he had promised in wages of war and supplies. There was no hope of regaining such a huge amount of money from impoverished Castile. Worse, Pedro the Cruel saw all the prisoners as traitors, not deserving of ransoms, and murdered as many as he could despite the prince"s protestations that these men were valuable to him. Although the prince held a great victory feast when he returned to Bordeaux, in reality he had plunged his princ.i.p.ality into chronic debt, having regained about one-eighth of what he had promised in wages of war and supplies.

The crisis in which the prince now found himself was comparable to that which Edward had faced in 1340-41, 1340-41, when he returned from Flanders incognito owing around when he returned from Flanders incognito owing around 300,000. 300,000. Edward had then weathered the consequent crisis by taking the argument to his political opponents, compromising, and then reversing his compromise after the storm had blown over. The prince could not do this. The crucial difference was that in England there was no alternative to Edward"s government in Edward had then weathered the consequent crisis by taking the argument to his political opponents, compromising, and then reversing his compromise after the storm had blown over. The prince could not do this. The crucial difference was that in England there was no alternative to Edward"s government in 1341, 1341, but in Gascony there was an all-too-eager alternative sovereign in the form of the French king. And King Charles, as every Gascon knew, had yet formally to renounce his sovereignty. When the lords who had fought at Najera realised that not only would they not be paid for their troubles, they would also be taxed to cover the prince"s shortfall, many began to think they would be better served by the weaker, less-a.s.suming French king. It was therefore through the Najera campaign that the prince precipitated the next stage of the Hundred Years War. but in Gascony there was an all-too-eager alternative sovereign in the form of the French king. And King Charles, as every Gascon knew, had yet formally to renounce his sovereignty. When the lords who had fought at Najera realised that not only would they not be paid for their troubles, they would also be taxed to cover the prince"s shortfall, many began to think they would be better served by the weaker, less-a.s.suming French king. It was therefore through the Najera campaign that the prince precipitated the next stage of the Hundred Years War.

Edward was a relatively pa.s.sive player in the move to war after Najera. He was constantly on the back foot, reacting from afar to the plots and strategies emerging in the cauldron of Gascon discontent. But he probably suspected what was happening. In 1333 1333 he himself had been a young king with much to prove and nothing to lose by making war on his enemies. Now King Charles was in a similar position. When the count of Armagnac wrote to Charles in May he himself had been a young king with much to prove and nothing to lose by making war on his enemies. Now King Charles was in a similar position. When the count of Armagnac wrote to Charles in May 1368 1368 appealing against the tax imposed by the prince, the French king saw an opportunity to divide and rule in Gascony. Lord Albret - for many years a die-hard English supporter - felt similarly angry with the prince and openly supported Armagnac. Together with the renewed attacks of the renegade English mercenaries, who had returned from Castile seeking more plunder in France, Charles decided that this was too good an opportunity to miss, and accepted the Gascon invitation to intervene. In so doing, he set himself on the path to war. appealing against the tax imposed by the prince, the French king saw an opportunity to divide and rule in Gascony. Lord Albret - for many years a die-hard English supporter - felt similarly angry with the prince and openly supported Armagnac. Together with the renewed attacks of the renegade English mercenaries, who had returned from Castile seeking more plunder in France, Charles decided that this was too good an opportunity to miss, and accepted the Gascon invitation to intervene. In so doing, he set himself on the path to war.

Historians have tended to portray Edward"s acceptance of the slide into conflict as a sign of his willingness to resume the fight and an ambition to enlarge on his conquest, as if he was some sort of military automaton. But this is a great misrepresentation of his ambitions at this time. He had for years yearned to consolidate his victories in France through a satisfactory peace treaty. He was old, he was ill, and he had lost his companions in arms. More importantly Queen Philippa was dying, and he was determined to stay with her until the end. Already she had commissioned her tomb effigy. For Edward and his wife it was just a matter of waiting, spending what littie time they had left together.

Edward attended parliament reluctantly in May 1368. 1368. Rather than discuss the deep crisis his son was facing in France, he showered praise on the representatives, charming them. He thanked them for all their support over the years, and they rose to the flattery, calling him their "highest, most excellent and most redoubted lord". The statutes enrolled were, however, without a clear strategy. It was as if Edward simply waved them through, or peremptorily dismissed those pet.i.tions which were too bothersome. The Statute of Labourers was re-enacted to suit the gentry, sheriffs were prohibited from holding their office for more than a year, and he relinquished his attempts to control JPs. He tried to regulate the wine trade by prohibiting English merchants from buying wine in Gascony, a statute which met with unfortunate results. The only acknowledgement of the impending doom appears in his statute abolishing the wool staple in Calais, which he admitted was threatened by the French breaking of the peace. Rather than discuss the deep crisis his son was facing in France, he showered praise on the representatives, charming them. He thanked them for all their support over the years, and they rose to the flattery, calling him their "highest, most excellent and most redoubted lord". The statutes enrolled were, however, without a clear strategy. It was as if Edward simply waved them through, or peremptorily dismissed those pet.i.tions which were too bothersome. The Statute of Labourers was re-enacted to suit the gentry, sheriffs were prohibited from holding their office for more than a year, and he relinquished his attempts to control JPs. He tried to regulate the wine trade by prohibiting English merchants from buying wine in Gascony, a statute which met with unfortunate results. The only acknowledgement of the impending doom appears in his statute abolishing the wool staple in Calais, which he admitted was threatened by the French breaking of the peace.

It was after parliament that the gravity of the situation became clear. Until now he had maintained a laissez faire laissez faire att.i.tude towards his son"s government in Gascony. The prince, after all, was the heir to the throne, and it was necessary for him to learn how to deal with tricky political situations. Edward would not have helped him by stepping in and removing him from authority. But when King Charles accepted Armagnac"s request to intervene, Edward had to respond. He wrote to Charles demanding to know what he meant by accepting the appeal. Charles deferred his answer, not wanting to provoke an immediate attack. The prince had no doubts as to the seriousness of the situation and ordered men-at-arms and archers to be raised on his estates in England and Wales, and prepared for war. All became clear in November when Charles a.s.sumed his sovereign role and summoned the prince to appear in Paris in May att.i.tude towards his son"s government in Gascony. The prince, after all, was the heir to the throne, and it was necessary for him to learn how to deal with tricky political situations. Edward would not have helped him by stepping in and removing him from authority. But when King Charles accepted Armagnac"s request to intervene, Edward had to respond. He wrote to Charles demanding to know what he meant by accepting the appeal. Charles deferred his answer, not wanting to provoke an immediate attack. The prince had no doubts as to the seriousness of the situation and ordered men-at-arms and archers to be raised on his estates in England and Wales, and prepared for war. All became clear in November when Charles a.s.sumed his sovereign role and summoned the prince to appear in Paris in May 1369. 1369. Edward wrote to his son, clearly of the opinion that he was not fit to govern. The prince wrote back, answering those of his father"s "advisers" (it was not seemly to say that the king himself was wrong) who accused him of maladministration and of bringing dishonour on himself.55 But the prince was now sick as well as bankrupt. He had caught a debilitating illness in Castile, and was physically too weak to lead an army.

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