So, too, when the clouds are dark in the west in the morning, and the sun rises clear, but "_goes into a cloud_," as it is expressed, you say that it will rain. And if the clouds are dense this generally proves true; because there is a storm or shower approaching from the west, and pa.s.sing over to the east, the western edge of whose advance condensation has met the sun in his coming, and obscured him from your vision.
When, too, it has been storming, and lights up in the N. W. you say it will clear off; the N. W. wind will blow all the clouds away. It is, indeed, generally true that when it so lights up it is about to clear off; although it sometimes shuts down again, in consequence of the approach of another storm from the westward, following closely behind the one which is pa.s.sing off. It is a great mistake, however, to suppose the N. W. wind blows away the clouds. Watch the smooth stratus rain cloud at its lower edge, where the clear sky is seen, and you will see that it is moving on steadily to the N. E., in obedience to the laws of its current, and will do so, even when its retreating edge has pa.s.sed up to the zenith, and down to the S. E.
The storm uncovers us from the N. W. by the contraction of its width, _or_ because it has a _southern lateral extension_ and _dissolution_, and not by being blown away by the N. W. wind; although that wind, by its peculiar fair-weather clouds, may be, perhaps, observed beneath, ready to follow its retreating edge.
Again, when it has been clear all day, and the sun sets in a bank of cloud, you say--"_it will rain to-morrow, the sun did not set clear_," and unless that bank is a thunder cloud, merely, which will pa.s.s over or by you, with or without rain, before morning, it is generally true that it will. The bank will prove the eastern edge of an approaching storm.
From these generally admitted and understood facts, you may know that storms pa.s.s from the west to the east.
This proposition is also proved by all the investigations of storms, which have taken place since the settlement of this country. Storms of great severity attract particular attention, and are said to "back up" against the wind, because they are observed to commence storming first at the westward, although the wind is from the eastward. Doubtless you recollect many such instances recorded in the newspapers. No season occurs without such notices.
Many storms have been investigated by Mr. Redfield, for the purpose of sustaining his theory. Many others by Professor Espy, to sustain his. One by Professor Loomis, with great research and ability--and some by others, accounts of all which have been published; and every one yet investigated, north of the parallel of 30, has been shown to pa.s.s from a westerly to an easterly point.
So, too, we may know it from a.n.a.logy. The laws of nature are uniform.
There is a great end to be accomplished, _viz._: the distribution of forty inches of water, at regular intervals, over a large extent of country. The rivers are to return, and the clouds are to drop fatness, and seed time and harvest are not to cease. It is to be done and is done, by means of storms and showers, and pursuant to general laws, as immutable as the result. Most of these storms and showers, it has been found, and may be observed, move from the westward to the eastward. Then we may know, from a.n.a.logy, that they do so in obedience to a general, uniform law; and so I might say with confidence, if our inquiry stopped here, it will ever be found by those who may hereafter examine them.
But, 2d. There is a current in the atmosphere, all over the continent north of the N. E. trades, but in great volume over the United States, east of the meridian of 105 W. from Greenwich--varying in different seasons, and upon different parallels, and flowing near the earth, when no surface wind interposes between them. In the vicinity of New York, the usual course of this current is from about W. S. W. to E. N. E. In the western and south-western portion of the United States, it is, doubtless, more southerly--varying somewhat according to the season--and in other sections varies in obedience to the general law of its origin, and progress.
I have observed its course in many places, between the parallels of 38 and 44 N. _This current comes from the South Atlantic Ocean._ It is our portion of the aerial current, which flows every where from the tropics toward the poles, to which I have already alluded in connection with the distribution of heat. _It brings to us the twenty inches of rain which we lose by the rivers, and by the westerly winds, which carry off a portion of the local moisture of evaporation, and its action precipitates the remaining portion of that moisture. It spreads out over the face of our country, with considerable, but not entire uniformity. All our great storms originate in it, and all our showers originate in or are induced and controlled by it._
_From the varied action, inherent or induced, of this current, most of our meteorological phenomena, whether of wet or dry, or cold or warm weather, result_; and a thorough knowledge of its origin, cause, and the reciprocal action between it and the earth, is essential to a knowledge of the "_Philosophy of the Weather_."
Let us then go down to the "chambers of the south," to the inter-tropical regions, of which we have said something in connection with a notice of Southern Mexico, and see where, and how this great aerial current originates.
CHAPTER IV.
Between the parallels of 35 north lat.i.tude, and 35 south lat.i.tude--changing its location within this limit at different seasons of the year--encircling the earth, and covering about one-half of its area--we find the trade-wind region. In this region are the simple and uniform arrangements, which extend every where, and produce all the atmospheric phenomena. In the center of it we find that movable belt of continual or daily rains, and comparative calms, particularly _near its center_, about four hundred and fifty miles in width upon the Atlantic, and over Africa, and the eastern portions of the Pacific, and something more over South America and the West Indies, the western portion of the Pacific and the Indian Ocean, to which we have already alluded. This belt of rains and calms follows the trades and sun, in their transit north and south, from one tropic to the other--its width and extension depending upon the volume of trade-winds existing on the sides of it. Its southern edge, when the sun is at the southern solstice, extends to 7 south in the Atlantic, to 10 south in the Indian Ocean, and still further, probably, over South America: on this point I do not pretend to be accurate, for accuracy is not essential. When the sun is at the northern solstice the southern edge is carried up as far as 12 north, over the Atlantic, and still further over the northern portions of South America, the West Indies, and Mexico. It travels, therefore, from south to north, over from twenty to forty degrees of lat.i.tude. The presence of this belt of rains over any given portion of the inter-tropics, gives that portion its rainy season, and its absence, as it moves to the north, or the south, gives the portion from which it has moved, its dry season. It pa.s.ses in its transit twice each year over some portions of the country, Bogota, for instance, and two corresponding rainy and dry seasons result. Its presence, and character, and movements, are as fixed and regular, over from twenty-five to forty degrees of the earth"s surface, _and all around it_, as the presence and movements of the sun over the same area.
At the northern edge of this movable belt of rain, and extending in some places, particularly in the Pacific Ocean, north about 20, or about one thousand four hundred miles, and in other places a less distance, the N.
E. trade winds prevail, blowing toward and into it from N. N. E., N. E., and E. N. E., averaging about N. E. At the south line of this belt of rains, extending south from twenty-five to thirty degrees, or from sixteen hundred to two thousand miles, the S. E. trades blow toward and into it, from the S. E., S. S. E., or E. S. E., averaging about S. E. Of course the northern limit of the N. E. trades travels north and south with the belt of rain, toward which it blows; and so the southern limit of the S. E.
trades travel in like manner with the rainy belt, or rather, to speak with entire accuracy, the belt of rain moves with the trades, and the trades follow the verticality of the sun. The following diagrams exhibit approximately, and with sufficient accuracy for ill.u.s.tration, the situations of the rainy belt and the trades, when at their northern and southern limit, as well as the manner in which it must give certain localities two rainy seasons each year, in its transit north and south.
At the northern and southern limits of the trade-winds, and extending from them to the poles, are found the variable winds and irregular extra-tropical rains, all over the earth, which are shown by the shading on the maps. This line of extra-tropical rains descends to the south, following the retreating trades as they descend in our winter, and recedes north before the trades when they return in spring and summer, so that at the outer limit of the trades respectively, toward the poles, the line of extra-tropical rains will be found, receding or following that limit, as the trades pa.s.s up and down with the sun. From the north pole to the northern limit of the N. E. trade-winds, wherever found, whether at 38 north lat.i.tude, as in some places in summer when the sun is at the tropic of Cancer; or whether at 20 to 30 north lat.i.tude, as in our winter, when the sun is at the tropic of Capricorn; the extra-tropical rains prevail. A state of things precisely similar exists between the south pole and the southern limit of the S. E. trades. Between this northern limit of the N. E. trades and the northern line of the inter-tropical belt of rains, wherever situated (with two exceptions, to which we have alluded and shall allude again), there is, for the time being, a dry season; and a like dry season between the southern line of the belt of rains and the southern limit of the S. E. trades. We have, therefore, extending around the earth, a belt of daily tropical rains, near the center,--two belts of drought which are mainly trade-wind surfaces, one on each side of the central rainy belt,--extending to the outward limits of the trades and the line of extra-tropical rains; and these rainy and dry belts, moving up and down after the sun, a distance of from twenty to forty degrees of lat.i.tude, each year.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 10. IN SUMMER.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 11. IN WINTER.]
Such are the _main_ phenomena, _at the surface_, in the trade-wind region.
Ascending a step higher in the atmosphere, we find, above the surface-trades, a counter-trade, running, not in the opposite direction, but at right angles, or nearly so. The counter-trade which issues from the northern side of the rainy belt, running to the N. W. or W. N. W., and the counter trade which issues from the southern side, running to the S. W. or W. S. W., varying, as the trades do in direction in different localities.
These counter-trades are continuations of the surface trades, which, ascending in their course, have threaded their way through the opposite trade in the rainy belt, and are continuing on at the same angle, and in the same direction at which they blew upon the surface, and in obedience to the same law. This is apparent from several considerations.
1st. They issue at the same angle, and over the top of the surface trades.
In the West Indies and elsewhere, this has been ascertained and proved by the course of the storms, and the rotation of their surface winds, and observation.
2d. We can not suppose the N. E. trade to be reflected, and turn back over itself at a right angle. That would be impossible, even if there were a wall of solid material there for it to blow against. Air is a peculiar fluid, and it stratifies with astonishing ease. He who supposes that a current of air put in motion can be turned aside by another current, or by the atmosphere at rest, or can be made to mingle, is mistaken. It will stratify, and force itself onward through the adjacent and opposing atmosphere, and in a right line. I have observed some remarkable instances of this character.
3d. The cause which operates to produce the surface trades, still operates upon the current to carry it over into the other hemisphere; a counter-trade, as we shall see. It is impossible, therefore, to believe that the surface-trades as they arrive at the belt of rains and calms, turn at a right angle, or at any angle, and return: and impossible to doubt that they pa.s.s through each other in this belt, and out at the opposite side, as upper currents, at the same angle at which they entered.
Of course the N. E. trade of the Atlantic becomes the N. E. counter-trade of South America, carrying their storms in a S. W. direction, and the S.
E. trade of the Atlantic the S. E. counter-trade of the West Indies, carrying all their storms in a N. W. direction; and what is true of them is true of the trade winds _every where, all over the globe, over the land and over the sea_.
Doubtless here some one will say, our upper current is a S. W. current.
True, the S. E. trade which enters the belt of rains, and issues out on the north, a S. E. upper current or counter-trade, keeps that course until it arrives at the northern limit of the surface trade, when, in _obedience to another law_, which we shall notice, it gradually _decends near the surface, curves to the eastward_, and becomes _the S. W. current which pa.s.ses over us_. And so we have the S. E. trade-wind of the South Atlantic, with its moisture, warmth, electricity, and polarity, over, and perhaps sometimes around us, dropping the electric rain which makes glad our fields; giving us, when not prevented by other conditions, the balmy air of spring, the Indian summer of autumn, and the mild mitigating changes of winter; and thus, _our rivers, which run into the sea, return to us again_.
But let us go back to the trade-wind region--the region of regularity and uniformity--and examine somewhat more attentively its features, that we may more fully understand the character of this counter-trade.
Here are 60 at least of the 180 of the earth"s surface, and at its largest diameter, covered in the course of the year, and of their travels, by the trade-winds at the surface, the counter-trades above, and the belt of rains and comparative calms, formed by the action of the opposite trades, as they thread their way through each other, to a.s.sume the relation of counter-trades. Truly the magnitude, simplicity, and regularity of this machinery are most wonderful.
There are, however, some _apparent_ anomalies which deserve attention.
Here are most distinctly marked the _rainy_ and _dry seasons_, existing side by side. Here are the _rainless portions_ of the earth, already but briefly alluded to; here the _monsoons_, and another peculiarity, _viz._: the _gathering of the counter-trades_ upon the western sides of the two great oceans, into two _aerial currents of greater volume_, _a.n.a.logous_ somewhat to the two _gulf streams_ of those oceans. Let us examine these anomalies.
The rainy and dry seasons depend, as we have seen, upon the transit north and south of the rainy belt, or belt of comparative calms. Wherever this belt may happen on any given day to be situated, each side of it the trades prevail, it is dry, the earth is parched, and vegetation withers.
These changes are graphically described by Humboldt in his "Views of Nature," as they occur on the northern portions of South America, as follows: "When, beneath the vertical rays of the bright and cloudless sun of the tropics, the parched sward crumbles into dust, then the indurated soil cracks and bursts, as if rent asunder by some mighty earthquake. The hot and dusty earth forms a cloudy vail, which shrouds the heavens from view, and increases the stifling oppression of the atmosphere; while the east wind (_i. e._ trade-wind), when it blows over the long heated soil, instead of cooling, adds to the burning glow.
"Gradually, too, the pools of water, which had been protected from evaporation by the now seared foliage of the fan-palm, disappear. As in the icy north animals become torpid from cold, so here the crocodile and the boa-constrictor lie wrapped in unbroken sleep, deeply buried in the dried soil. Every where the drought announces death, yet every where the thirsty wanderer is deluded by the phantom of a moving, undulating, watery surface, created by the deceptive play of the reflected rays of light (the mirage). A narrow stratum separates the ground from the distant palm-trees, which seem to hover aloft, owing to the contact of currents of air having different degrees of heat, and therefore of density. Shrouded in dark clouds of dust, and tortured by hunger and burning thirst, oxen and horses scour the plain, the one belowing dismally, the other with outstretched necks snuffing the wind, in the endeavor to detect, by the moisture in the air, the vicinity of some pool of water not yet wholly evaporated.
"Even if the burning heat of day be succeeded by the cool freshness of the night, here always of equal length, the wearied ox and horse enjoy no repose. Huge bats now attack the animals during sleep, and vampyre-like suck their blood; or, fastening on their backs, raise festering wounds, in which mosquitos, hippobosces, and a host of other stinging insects, burrow and nestle. Such is the miserable existence of these poor animals, when the heat of the sun has absorbed the waters from the surface of the earth.
"When, after a long drought, the genial season of rain arrives, the scene suddenly changes. The deep azure of the hitherto cloudless sky a.s.sumes a lighter hue. Scarcely can the dark s.p.a.ce in the constellation of the Southern Cross be distinguished at night. The mild phosph.o.r.escence of the Magellanic clouds fades away. Even the vertical stars of the constellations Aquila and Ophiuchus, shine with a flickering and less planetary light. Like some distant mountain, a single cloud is seen rising perpendicularly on the southern horizon. Misty vapors collect and gradually overspread the heavens, while distant thunder proclaims the approach of the vivifying rain. Scarcely is the surface of the earth moistened, before the teeming steppe becomes covered with Killingiae, with the many-panicled Paspalum, and a variety of gra.s.ses. Excited by the power of light, the herbaceous Mimosa unfolds its dormant, drooping leaves, hailing, as it were, the rising sun in chorus with the matin song of the birds, and the opening flowers of aquatics. Horses and oxen, buoyant with life and enjoyment, roam over and crop the plains. The luxuriant gra.s.s hides the beautiful and spotted jaguar, who, lurking in safe concealment, and carefully measuring the extent of the leap, darts, like the Asiatic tiger, with a cat-like bound on his pa.s.sing prey."
Such is Humboldt"s description of the dry season on the Orinoco, and the return of the belt of rains from the south.
Again, within this trade-wind region are the _rainless countries_. These are portions of the earth which the equatorial rainy belt does not ascend far enough north in summer to cover, nor does the southern edge of the extra-tropical regular rains descend, in winter, far enough south to cover them, and where, of course, rain seldom, if ever, falls. Such are the central parts of the Desert of Sahara, Egypt, Arabia, portions of Affghanistan, Beloochistan, and the western parts of Hindoostan, to the north of the inter-tropical belt, and a similar state of things exists south of the equator in parts of South America, Africa, and New Holland, although upon a comparatively small surface.
Again, another anomaly is the gathering of the trade winds into greater volumes, on the westerly side of the great oceans, and the consequent carrying of the equatorial rainy belt up to the region of extra-tropical rains, on the eastern side of the great continents of Asia and North America, and the peculiar liability of these aerial gulfs to hurricanes and typhoons. Such an aerial gulf gathers over the Caribbean Sea, and the West Indies. Pa.s.sing across the Gulf of Mexico, it enters over Texas, and Louisiana, and the other southern states; its western edge pa.s.sing north in autumn and winter, on the eastern side of the highlands of Western Texas, New Mexico, and the Great Desert; curving, as all counter-trades do, to the eastward as soon as it pa.s.ses the limit of the N. E. trades, and spreading out over our favored country, leaving the evidence of its pathway in the greater quant.i.ties of rain, which fall annually upon its surface. This gathering deprives a portion of the Atlantic, north of the tropics, of its share of the counter trade, and there, as every where, where the volume of counter-trade is small, storms and gales are infrequent, and of less force, and comparative calms prevail. That portion of the Atlantic has long been known as "the horse lat.i.tudes," a name given to it by our Yankee sailors, because, there, in former times, the old-fashioned, low-decked, flat-bottomed, horse-carrying craft of New England, bound for the West Indies, often floundered about in the calms and baffling winds, until their animals perished for want of water, and were thrown overboard. Lieutenant Maury, in his most praiseworthy and exceedingly useful investigation of "The Winds and Currents of the Ocean,"
has defined the situation of these calms and baffling winds at different seasons--for they move up and down, of course, with the motion of the whole machinery--and enabled navigators to avoid them, by running _east_ before they attempt to make _southing_; and very materially shortened the voyages to the equator.
A like gathering, in volume, of the S. E. trade, on the western side of the Pacific, enters over Asia, and covers China and Malaysia, extending, in its western course, nearly as far as the western edge of Hindoostan. In this concentrated volume of counter-trade, and owing to its concentrated action, form and float the typhoons of the China Sea, and of the Bay of Bengal; and to this anomalous aerial gulf stream, the S. E. portions of Asia, from the western desert of Hindoostan, to the eastern portion of China, north of the rainy belt, owe their great supply of moisture and fertility, and their peculiar climate. The western line of this volume of counter-trade is marked by the eastern portion of the rainless region of Beloochistan, and the north-western deserts of India, as the western edge of our concentrated volume of counter-trade, is marked by the arid plains of northern Mexico, western Texas, and New Mexico. On the south of the equatorial rainy belt, there is no corresponding aerial gulf of equal volume, as there is no corresponding gulf stream of equal magnitude. On the western side of the Indian Ocean we find a gathering of the N. E.
trades from the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean, in which form and travel the hurricanes which prevail--traveling to the southward and westward--about the Isle of France or Mauritius; and the lagullus oceanic current, which runs down to the S. W. toward the Cape of Good Hope. But the extension of South America to the eastward, under, or just south of the N. E. trades, does not permit the formation of such a concentrated volume on the western side of the Atlantic, nor is the strength or regularity of the N. E. trades, on that ocean, equal to those of the S. E.
Nor is the magnetic intensity on the eastern and middle portions of the Pacific, sufficient to produce such a concentration, in large volume, there. The trades over that ocean, therefore, curve without concentration, except a partial one, over the western groups of Polynesia, which the Asiatic line of magnetic intensity approaches and where hurricanes are sometimes found, until we arrive near the eastern line of magnetic intensity, on the eastern side of Asia. We shall, hereafter, have occasion to follow the anomalous concentrated volumes of the S. E. counter-trade, of the northern tropic, on the western side of the great oceans, in explanation of some of the phenomena which we find north of the trade-wind region. Suffice it here to add, that if it were not for the concentration of these counter-trades, on the western side of the great oceans, the rainless region between the parallels of 20 and 30 would encircle the earth; and China and the Eastern United States would have a distinctly marked rainy and dry season, as have California, the Barbary States, Syria, Persia, and other countries which lie north of the rainless region, within the summer range of the N. E. trades, but also within the winter descending range of the belt of extra-tropical rains.
Another anomaly which we find in the trade-wind region, is the monsoon.
There are several of them, but they are found, in the greatest strength and regularity, in the Indian Ocean. Another, defined by the investigations of Maury, is found on the west coast of Africa, extending out over the Atlantic. Another prevails on the western coast of South and Central America. The etesian winds of the Mediterranean are but the N. E.
trades, whose northern limit is carried up in summer, by the transit of the connected machinery, to the north, over that sea. The N. E. and S. E.
monsoons, so called, of the Indian Ocean, are but the regular trades, blowing when the belt of rains is absent, as they do all over the globe.
The N. W. monsoon, south of the equator, in the vicinity of New Holland; the S. W. monsoon which blows from the Arabian Sea, in upon Hindoostan; the S. W. monsoon of the Atlantic, south of the Cape De Verde Islands; and the variable west monsoon winds of the west coast of Southern and Central America, and Southern Mexico (known under several different names, but chiefly by that of Tapayaguas), are all that deserve attention as such.
At first sight they appear to be anomalies, but the facts declare their character with perfect certainty. First, they are not continuous, like the trades, but _prevailing_ winds, and are _storm winds_; _they always blow toward a region_, _or portion of the ocean_, _covered at the time by clouds and falling weather_.
Second, they do not blow upon, or toward, heated surfaces of land or water--_i. e._, toward the dry and parched surfaces, where the dry season prevails, or from adjoining cold waters on to warm surfaces, but toward the land or water _situated under the rainy belt_. They are therefore incident storm winds, (as our easterly winds are incident storm winds) of the rain clouds of the tropics. They blow in upon the land, under the belt of rains, while that belt with its daily cloud, and inducing electric action, is over it, and follow that belt in its transit north and south.
They blow from the warm south polar current of the Atlantic, which flows N. W. from the coast of Africa, toward the insh.o.r.e north polar current, which is there flowing south, but under the belt of rains. In the Indian Ocean they blow from the center of that ocean, and the Arabian Sea, toward the belt which hangs over Hindoostan, from the S. W.; and when the rainy belt travels south they still blow toward, and under it, from the Indian Ocean, but of course from the N. W. The heated character of the waters of the Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea, which receive no polar currents, but heated waters from the Persian Gulf, and from rivers which flow into the Bay of Bengal over the heated plains of a tropical country, explain this.