"1817, Dec. Vesuvius in eruption. In the evening _a hail storm_, accompanied with red sand."--(Journal of Science, vol. v.)
"1820, Banda. A frightful volcanic eruption, and in the evening an earthquake and a violent hurricane."--(Annales de Chimie.)
"1822, Oct. Eruption of Vesuvius. Toward its close the volcanic thunder-storm produced an exceedingly violent and abundant fall of rain."--(Humboldt, Aspects of Nature.)
"1843, Jan. Etna in eruption. Violent hurricanes at Genoa, in the Bay of Biscay, and in Great Britain.
"1843, Feb. Destructive earthquakes in the West Indies, a volcanic eruption at Guadaloupe, followed by hurricanes in the Atlantic."
"1846, June 26. Volcano of White Island, New Zealand, in eruption.
Heavy squalls of wind and hail; it blew as hard as in a typhoon."--(Commodore Hayes, R.N., in Naut. Mag., 1847.)
"1847, March 20. Volcanic eruption and earthquake in Java; and on the 21st of March, and 3d of April, violent hurricanes."--(Java Courant.)
"1851, Aug. 5. A frightful eruption of the long dormant volcano of the Pelee Mountain, Martinique. Aug. 17. Hurricane at St. Thomas, etc.; earthquake at Jamaica, etc.
"1852, April 14. Earthquake at Hawaii, and on the 15th a great volcanic eruption. On the 18th _a gale of unusual violence_ lasted thirty-six hours, and did great damage."--(The Polynesian, April 22, 1852.)
3d. In volcanic regions, earthquakes and hurricanes often occur almost simultaneously, but in no certain order, and without any volcanic eruption being observed.
In 1712, 1722, 1815, and 1851, earthquakes and hurricanes occurred together at Jamaica; in 1762 at Carthagena; in 1780 at Barbadoes; in 1811 at Charleston; in 1847 at Tobago; in 1837 and 1848 at Antigua; in 1819, an awful storm at Montreal, rain of a dark inky color, and a slight earthquake. People conjectured that a volcano had broken out.
In 1766 the great Martinique hurricane, a _waterspout_ burst on Mount Pelee and overwhelmed the place. Same night, an earthquake.
1843, Oct. 30. Manilla.--Twenty four hours" rain and two heavy earthquakes. 10 P.M., a severe hurricane.
"1852, Sept. 16. Manilla--An earthquake destroyed a great part of the city; many vessels wrecked by a great hurricane in the adjacent seas, between the 18th and 26th of September."--(Singapore Times.)
"1731, Oct. Calcutta.--Furious hurricane and violent earthquake; 300,000 lives lost."
"1618, May 26. Bombay.--Hurricane and earthquakes; 2,000 lives lost."--(Madras Lit. Tran., 1837.)
"1800. Ongole, India, and in 1815, at Ceylon, a hurricane and earthquake shocks."--(Piddington.)
"1348. Cyprus.--An earthquake and a frightful hurricane."--(Hecker.)
"1819. Bagdad.--An earthquake and _a storm_--an event quite unprecedented.
"1820, Dec. Zante.--Great earthquake and hurricane, with manifestations of a submarine eruption."--(Edinburg Phil. Journal.)
"1831, Dec. Navigator"s Islands.--Hurricane and earthquakes."--(Williams" Missionary Enterprise.)
"1848, Oct., Nov. New Zealand.--Succession of earthquake shocks, and several tempests.
"1836, Oct. At Valparaiso, a destructive tempest and severe earthquakes."--(Nautical Magazine, 1848.)
When an earthquake of excessive intensity occurs, as at Lisbon, in 1755, the volcanic craters, which act as the safety-valves of the regions in which they are placed, are supposed to be sealed up; and it is a remarkable and highly-suggestive fact, that _no hurricane follows such an earthquake_. The number of instances of the concurrence of ordinary earthquakes and hurricanes might easily be increased, but the preceding suffice to show the _generality_ of their coincidence, both as _to time_ and place.
4th. The breaking of water-spouts on mountains sometimes accompanies hurricanes.
In 1766, during the great Martinique hurricane, before cited.
"1826, Nov. At Teneriffe, enormous and most destructive water-spouts fell on the culminating tops of the mountains, and a furious cyclone raged around the island. The same occurred in 1812 and in 1837."--(Espy and Grey"s Western Australia.)
"1829. Moray.--Floods and earthquakes, preceded by water-spouts and a tremendous storm."--(Sir T. D. Lander.)
"1826, June. Hurricanes, accompanied by water-spouts and fall of avalanches, in the White Mountains."--(Silliman"s American Journal, vol. xv.)
5th. The fall of an avalanche sometimes produces a hurricane.
"1819, Dec. A part (360,000,000 cubic feet) of the glacier fell from the Weisshorn (9,000 feet). At the instant, when the snow and ice struck the inferior ma.s.s of the glacier, the pastor of the village of Randa, the sacristan, and some other persons, _observed a light_. A frightful hurricane immediately succeeded."--(Edinburg Philosophical Journal, 1820.)
6th. Water-spouts occur frequently near active volcanos.
This is well known with regard to the West Indies and the Mediterranean. The following notices refer to the Malay Archipelago and the Sandwich Islands:
"Water-spouts are often seen in the seas and straits adjacent to Singapore. In Oct., 1841, I saw _six_ in action, attached to one cloud. In August, 1838, one pa.s.sed over the harbor and town of Singapore, dismasting one ship, sinking another, and carrying off the corner of the roof of a house, in its pa.s.sage landward."--(Journal of Indian Archipelago.)
"1809. An immense water-spout broke over the harbor of Honolulu. A few years before, one broke on the north side of the island (Oahu), washed away a number of houses, and drowned several inhabitants."--(Jarves" History of Sandwich Islands.)
7th. Cyclones begin in the immediate neighborhood of active volcanos.
The Mauritius cyclones begin near Java; the West Indian, near the volcanic series of the Caribbean Islands; those of the Bay of Bengal, near the volcanic islands, on its eastern sh.o.r.es; the typhoons of the China Sea, near the Philippine Islands, etc.
8th. Within the tropics, cyclones move toward the west; and, in middle lat.i.tudes, cyclones and water-spouts move toward the N. E., in the northern hemisphere, and toward the S. E. in the southern hemisphere.
9th. In the northern hemisphere, cyclones rotate in a horizontal plane, in the order N. W., S. E.; and in the southern hemisphere, in the order N. E., S. W.
By applying the principles of electro-dynamics to the electricity of the atmosphere, I shall endeavor to connect and explain the preceding well-defined facts. The continuous observations of Quetelet, on the electricity of the atmosphere, from 1844 to 1849 (Literary Journal, February, 1850), show that it is always positive, and increases as the temperature diminishes. It therefore increases rapidly with the height above the earth"s surface. We may, consequently, regard the upper and colder regions of the atmosphere as an immense reservoir of electric fluid enveloping the earth, which is insulated by the intermediate spherical sh.e.l.l formed by the lower and denser atmosphere. Now, whenever a vertical column of this atmosphere is suddenly displaced, the surrounding aqueous vapor will be immediately condensed and aggregated, and the cold rarefied air and moisture will form a vertical conductor for the descent of the electrical fluid.
This descent will take place down a spiral, gyrating in the order N.
W., S. E., in the northern hemisphere, since the electric current is under the same influence as that of the south pole of a magnet; and in the order N. E., S. W., in the southern hemisphere. The air exterior to the conducting cylinder will partake of the violent revolving motion, and a tornado or cyclone will be produced.
Upon the foregoing facts I shall comment in another place.
Three theories have been advanced by meteorologists of this country, two of which profess to explain all the phenomena of the weather. Professor Espy attributed the production of storms and rain to an ascending column of air, rarefied by heat, and the rarefaction increased by the latent heat of vapor given out during condensation, and an inward tendency of the air, from all directions, toward the ascending vortex, const.i.tuting the prevailing winds. Thus, Professor Espy conceived, and to some extent proved, that the wind blew inward, from all sides, toward the center of a storm, either as a circle, or having a long central line, and he conceived that it ascended in the middle, and spread out above; and that clouds, rain, hail, and snow, were formed by condensation consequent upon the expansion and cooling of the atmosphere, as it attained an increased elevation.
_This ascent_ was not, in fact, _proved_ by Professor Espy, _has not been found by others_, and _is not discoverable, according to my observations_.
The theory was ingenious, founded on the theory of Dalton, that the vapor was maintained in the atmosphere by reason of a large quant.i.ty of latent heat, which was given out when condensation took place. This theory is also unsound. No such elevation of temperature is found in clouds or fogs when they form near the earth, however dense. Thus the two princ.i.p.al elements of Professor Espy"s theory are found to be untrue, and the theory untenable. But it was sustained with great ability and research, and the distinguished theorist deserves much for the discovery and record of important facts in relation to the weather. Aside from its theoretical views, his book contains a great ma.s.s of valuable information, and will well repay the cost of purchase and perusal.
Another theory, by Mr. Ba.s.snett, is of recent date, founded on the influence of the moon, and the supposed creation of vortices in the ether above, whose influence extends to the earth, producing storms and other phenomena. No one can peruse his book without conceding to him great ability and scientific attainment; and if his theory was true, the periods of fair and foul weather could be calculated with great mathematical certainty. But it contains inherent and insuperable objections. I will only add that all herein before contained is in direct opposition to it.
Mr. W. C. Redfield, of New York, as early as 1831, first advanced in this country the theory of gyration in storms, and investigated their lines of progress on our coast and continent. His theory is limited in its character, and does not profess, except indirectly, to explain all, or indeed any, of the other phenomena of the weather. As far as it goes, however, it is generally received in this country and Europe, and has been adopted by Reed, Piddington, and others, who have written on the law of storms. The position of Mr. Redfield is honorable to himself and his country. Science and navigation are much indebted to him for his industry in the collection of facts. Nevertheless, his theory is not in accordance with my observation, and I deem it unsound. Although expressed disbelief of the theory has been characterized as an "attack" upon its author, I propose, with that _respect_ which is due to him, but with that _freedom_ and _independence_ which a search for _truth_ warrants, to examine it with some particularity. It is a part of the subject, and I can not avoid it.
When the theory was first announced, I adopted it as probably true; and being then engaged in a different profession, which took me much into the open air by night and day, I watched with renewed care the clouds and currents for evidence to confirm it. I discovered none; on the contrary, I found much, very much, absolutely and utterly inconsistent with its truth.
The substance only of these observations will be adduced.
Mr. Redfield admits that the progression of our storms in the vicinity of New York, is from some point between S. S. W. and W. S. W., to some point between N. N. E. and E. N. E. According to my observation, except perhaps in occasional autumnal gales, they are not often, if ever, from S. of S.
W., and the great majority of them, including, I believe, all N. E.
storms, are between S. W. and W. S. W. Now, the card of Mr. Redfield, moving over any place from any point between S. W. and W. S. W., calls for a S. E. wind at its axis, an E. wind at its north front, and a S. wind at its south front, and does not call _for a N. E. wind on its front at all, except at the north extreme_, where it could _not continue for any considerable period_.