This is the historical moment Browning ill.u.s.trates. Lippo Lippi was forced to paint the worn religious subjects: Jerome knocking his breast, the choirs of angels and martyrs, the scenes of the Gospel; but out of all he did the eager modern life began to glance! Natural, quaint, original faces and att.i.tudes appeared; the angels smiled like Florentine women; the saints wore the air of Bohemians. There is a picture by Lippo Lippi in the National Gallery of some nine of them sitting on a bench under a hedge of roses, and it is no paradox to say that they might fairly represent the Florentines who tell the tales of the _Decameron_.
The transition as it appeared in art is drawn in this poem. Lippo Lippi became a monk by chance; it was not his vocation. A starving boy, he roamed the streets of Florence; and the widespread intelligence of the city is marked by Browning"s account of the way in which the _boy_ observed all the life of the streets for eight years. Then the coming change of the aims of art is indicated by the way in which, when he was allowed to paint, he covered the walls of the Carmine, not with saints, virgins, and angels, but with the daily life of the streets--the boy patting the dog, the murderer taking refuge at the altar, the white wrath of the avenger coming up the aisle, the girl going to market, the crowd round the stalls in the market, the monks, white, grey, and black--things as they were, as like as two peas to the reality; flesh and blood now painted, not skin and bone; not the expression on the face alone, but the whole body in speaking movement; nothing conventional, nothing imitative of old models, but actual life as it lay before the painter"s eyes. Into this fresh aera of art Lippo Lippi led the way with the joy of youth. But he was too soon. The Prior, all the representatives of the conservative elements in the convent, were sorely troubled. "Why, this will never do: faces, arms, legs, and bodies like the true; life as it is; nature as she is; quite impossible." And Browning, in Lippo"s defence of himself, paints the conflict of the past with the coming art in a pa.s.sage too long to quote, too admirable to shorten.
The new art conquered the old. The whole life of Florence was soon painted as it was: the face of the town, the streets, the churches, the towers, the winding river, the mountains round about it; the country, the fields and hills and hamlets, the peasants at work, ploughing, sowing, and gathering fruit, the cattle feeding, the birds among the trees and in the sky; n.o.bles and rich burghers hunting, hawking; the magistrates, the citizens, the street-boys, the fine ladies, the tradesmen"s wives, the heads of the guilds; the women visiting their friends; the interior of the houses. We may see this art of human life in the apse of Santa Maria Novella, painted by the hand of Ghirlandajo: in the Riccardi Palace, painted by Benozzo Gozzoli; in more than half the pictures of the painters who succeeded Fra Lippo Lippi. Only, so much of the old clings that all this actual Florentine life is painted into the ancient religious subjects--the life of the Baptist and the Virgin, the emba.s.sage of the Wise Men, the life of Christ, the legends of the saints, the lives of the virgins and martyrs, Jerusalem and its life painted as if it were Florence and its life--all the spiritual religion gone out of it, it is true, but yet, another kind of religion budding in it--the religion, not of the monastery, but of daily common life.
the world --The beauty and the wonder and the power, The shapes of things, their colours, lights, and shades.
Changes, surprises--and G.o.d made it all!
Who paints these things as if they were alive, and loves them while he paints, paints the garment of G.o.d; and men not only understand their own life better because they see, through the painting, what they did not see before; but also the movement of G.o.d"s spirit in the beauty of the world and in the life of men. Art interprets to man all that is, and G.o.d in it.
Oh, oh, It makes me mad to think what men shall do And we in our graves! This world"s no blot for us, No blank; it means intensely, and means good: To find its meaning is my meat and drink.
He could not do it; the time was not ripe enough. But he began it. And the spirit of its coming breaks out in all he did.
We take a leap of more than half a century when we pa.s.s from _Fra Lippo Lippi_ to _Andrea del Sarto_. That advance in art to which Lippo Lippi looked forward with a kind of rage at his own powerlessness had been made. In its making, the art of the Renaissance had painted men and women, both body and soul, in every kind of life, both of war and peace; and better than they had ever been painted before. Having fulfilled that, the painters asked, "What more? What new thing shall we do? What new aim shall we pursue?" And there arose among them a desire to paint all that was paintable, and especially the human body, with scientific perfection. "In our desire to paint the whole of life, we have produced so much that we were forced to paint carelessly or inaccurately. In our desire to be original, we have neglected technique. In our desire to paint the pa.s.sions on the face and in the movements of men, we have lost the calm and harmony of the ancient cla.s.sic work, which made its ethical impression of the perfect balance of the divine nature by the ideal arrangement, in accord with a finished science, of the various members of the body to form a finished whole. Let the face no longer then try to represent the individual soul. One type of face for each cla.s.s of art-representation is enough. Let our effort be to represent beauty by the perfect drawing of the body in repose and in action, and by chosen att.i.tudes and types. Let our composition follow certain guiding lines and rules, in accordance with whose harmonies all pictures shall be made. We will follow the Greek; compose as he did, and by his principles; and for that purpose make a scientific study of the body of man; observing in all painting, sculpture, and architecture the general forms and proportions that ancient art, after many experiments, selected as the best. And, to match that, we must have perfect drawing in all we do."
This great change, which, as art"s adulterous connection with science deepened, led to such unhappy results, Browning represents, when its aim had been reached, in his poem, _Andrea del Sarto_; and he tells us--through Andrea"s talk with his wife Lucretia--what he thought of it; and what Andrea himself, whose broken life may have opened his eyes to the truth of things, may himself have thought of it. On that element in the poem I have already dwelt, and shall only touch on the scenery and tragedy, of the piece:
We sit with Andrea, looking out to Fiesole.
sober, pleasant Fiesole.
There"s the bell clinking from the chapel top; That length of convent-wall across the way Holds the trees safer, huddled more inside; The last monk leaves the garden; days decrease, And autumn grows, autumn in everything.
As the poem goes on, the night falls, falls with the deepening of the painter"s depression; the owls cry from the hill, Florence wears the grey hue of the heart of Andrea; and Browning weaves the autumn and the night into the tragedy of the painter"s life.
That tragedy was pitiful. Andrea del Sarto was a faultless painter and a weak character; and it fell to his lot to love with pa.s.sion a faithless woman. His natural weakness was doubled by the weakness engendered by unconquerable pa.s.sion; and he ruined his life, his art, and his honour, to please his wife. He wearied her, as women are wearied, by pa.s.sion unaccompanied by power; and she endured him only while he could give her money and pleasures. She despised him for that endurance, and all the more that he knew she was guilty, but said nothing lest she should leave him. Browning fills his main subject--his theory of the true aim of art--with this tragedy; and his treatment of it is a fine example of his pa.s.sionate humanity; and the pa.s.sion of it is knitted up with close reasoning and illuminated by his intellectual play.
It is worth a reader"s while to read, along with this poem, Alfred de Musset"s short play, _Andre del Sarto_. The tragedy of the situation is deepened by the French poet, and the end is told. Unlike Browning, only a few lines sketch the time, its temper, and its art. It is the depth of the tragedy which De Musset paints, and that alone; and in order to deepen it, Andrea is made a much n.o.bler character than he is in Browning"s poem. The betrayal is also made more complete, more overwhelming. Lucretia is false to Andrea with his favourite pupil, with Cordiani, to whom he had given all he had, whom he loved almost as much as he loved his wife. Terrible, inevitable Fate broods over this brief and masterly little play.
The next of these imaginative representations of the Renaissance is, _The Bishop orders his Tomb at St. Praxed"s Church_. We are placed in the full decadence of the Renaissance. Its total loss of religion, even in the Church; its immorality--the bishop"s death-bed is surrounded by his natural sons and the wealth he leaves has been purchased by every kind of iniquity--its pride of life; its luxury; its semi-Paganism; its imitative cla.s.sicism; its inconsistency; its love of jewels, and fine stones, and rich marbles; its jealousy and envy; its pleasure in the adornment of death; its delight in the outsides of things, in mere workmanship; its loss of originality; its love of scholarship for scholarship"s sake alone; its contempt of the common people; its exhaustion--are one and all revealed or suggested in this astonishing poem.
These are the three greater poems dedicated to this period; but there are some minor poems which represent different phases of its life. One of these is the _Pictor Ignotus_. There must have been many men, during the vital time of the Renaissance, who, born, as it were, into the art-ability of the period, reached without trouble a certain level in painting, but who had no genius, who could not create; or who, if they had some touch of genius, had no boldness to strike it into fresh forms of beauty; shy, retiring men, to whom the criticism of the world was a pain they knew they could not bear. These men are common at a period when life is racing rapidly through the veins of a vivid city like Florence. The general intensity of the life lifts them to a height they would never reach in a dull and sleepy age. The life they have is not their own, but the life of the whole town. And this keen perception of life outside of them persuades them that they can do all that men of real power can do. In reality, they can do nothing and make nothing worth a people"s honour. Browning, who himself was compact of boldness, who loved experiment in what was new, and who shaped what he conceived without caring for criticism, felt for these men, of whom he must have met many; and, asking himself "How they would think; what they would do; and how life would seem to them," wrote this poem. In what way will poor human nature excuse itself for failure? How will the weakness in the man try to prove that it was power? How, having lost the joy of life, will he attempt to show that his loss is gain, his failure a success; and, being rejected of the world, approve himself within?
This was a subject to please Browning; meat such as his soul loved: a nice, involved, Daedalian, labyrinthine sort of thing, a mixture of real sentiment and self-deceit; and he surrounded it with his pity for its human weakness.
"I could have painted any picture that I pleased," cries this painter; "represented on the face any pa.s.sion, any virtue." If he could he would have done it, or tried it. Genius cannot hold itself in.
"I have dreamed of sending forth some picture which should enchant the world (and he alludes to Cimabue"s picture)--
"Bound for some great state, Or glad aspiring little burgh, it went-- Flowers cast upon the car which bore the freight, Through old streets named afresh from the event.
"That would have been, had I willed it. But mixed with the praisers there would have been cold, critical faces; judges who would press on me and mock. And I--I could not bear it." Alas! had he had genius, no fear would have stayed his hand, no judgment of the world delayed his work.
What stays a river breaking from its fountain-head?
So he sank back, saying the world was not worthy of his labours. "What?
Expose my n.o.ble work (things he had conceived but not done) to the prate and pettiness of the common buyers who hang it on their walls! No, I will rather paint the same monotonous round of Virgin, Child, and Saints in the quiet church, in the sanctuary"s gloom. No merchant then will traffic in my heart. My pictures will moulder and die. Let them die. I have not vulgarised myself or them." Brilliant and n.o.bly wrought as the first three poems are of which I have written, this quiet little piece needed and received a finer workmanship, and was more difficult than they.
Then there is _How it strikes a Contemporary_--the story of the gossip of a Spanish town about a poor poet, who, because he wanders everywhere about the streets observing all things, is mistaken for a spy of the king. The long pages he writes are said to be letters to the king; the misfortunes of this or that man are caused by his information. The world thinks him a wonder of cleverness; he is but an inferior poet. It imagines that he lives in a.s.syrian luxury; he lives and dies in a naked garret. This imaginative representation might be of any time in a provincial town of an ignorant country like Spain. It is a slight study of what superst.i.tious imagination and gossip will work up round any man whose nature and manners, like those of a poet, isolate him from the common herd. Force is added to this study by its scenery. The Moorish windows, the shops, the gorgeous magistrates pacing down the promenade, are touched in with a flying pencil; and then, moving through the crowd, the lean, black-coated figure, with his cane and dog and his peaked hat, clear flint eyes and beaked nose, is seen, as if alive, in the vivid sunshine of Valladolid. But what Browning wished most to describe in this poem was one of the first marks of a poet, even of a poor one like this gentleman--the power of seeing and observing everything. Nothing was too small, nothing uninteresting in this man"s eyes. His very hat was scrutinising.
He stood and watched the cobbler at his trade, The man who slices lemons into drink, The coffee-roaster"s brazier, and the boys That volunteer to help him turn its winch.
He glanced o"er books on stalls with half an eye, And fly-leaf ballads on the vendor"s string, And broad-edged bold-print posters by the wall.
He took such cognisance of man and things, If any beat a horse you felt he saw; If any cursed a woman, he took note; Yet stared at n.o.body, you stared at him, And found, less to your pleasure than surprise, He seemed to know you and expect as much.
That is the artist"s way. It was Browning"s way. He is describing himself. In that fashion he roamed through Venice or Florence, stopping every moment, attracted by the smallest thing, finding a poem in everything, lost in himself yet seeing all that surrounded him, isolated in thinking, different from and yet like the rest of the world.
Another poem--_My Last d.u.c.h.ess_--must be mentioned. It is plainly placed in the midst of the period of the Renaissance by the word _Ferrara_, which is added to its t.i.tle. But it is rather a picture of two temperaments which may exist in any cultivated society, and at any modern time. There are numbers of such men as the Duke and such women as the d.u.c.h.ess in our midst. Both are, however, drawn with mastery.
Browning has rarely done his work with more insight, with greater keenness of portraiture, with happier brevity and selection. As in _The Flight of the d.u.c.h.ess_, untoward fate has bound together two temperaments sure to clash with each other--and no gipsy comes to deliver the woman in this case. The man"s nature kills her. It happens every day. The Renaissance society may have built up more men of this type than ours, but they are not peculiar to it.
Germany, not Italy, is, I think, the country in which Browning intended to place two other poems which belong to the time of the Renaissance--_Johannes Agricola in Meditation_ and _A Grammarian"s Funeral_. Their note is as different from that of the Italian poems as the national temper of Germany is from that of Italy. They have no sense of beauty for beauty"s sake alone. Their atmosphere is not soft or gay but somewhat stern. The logical arrangement of them is less one of feeling than of thought. There is a stronger manhood in them, a grimmer view of life. The sense of duty to G.o.d and Man, but little represented in the Italian poems of the Renaissance, does exist in these two German poems. Moreover, there is in them a full representation of aspiration to the world beyond. But the Italian Renaissance lived for the earth alone, and its loveliness; too close to earth to care for heaven.
It pleased Browning to throw himself fully into the soul of Johannes Agricola; and he does it with so much personal fervour that it seems as if, in one of his incarnations, he had been the man, and, for the moment of his writing, was dominated by him. The mystic-pa.s.sion fills the poetry with keen and dazzling light, and it is worth while, from this point of view, to compare the poem with Tennyson"s _Sir Galahad_, and on another side, with _St. Simeon Stylites_.
Johannes Agricola was one of the products of the reforming spirit of the sixteenth century in Germany, one of its wild extremes. He believes that G.o.d had chosen him among a few to be his for ever and for his own glory from the foundation of the world. He did not say that all sin was permitted to the saints, that what the flesh did was no matter, like those wild fanatics, one of whom Scott draws in _Woodstock_; but he did say, that if he sinned it made no matter to his election by G.o.d. Nay, the immanence of G.o.d in him turned the poison to health, the filth to jewels. Goodness and badness make no matter; G.o.d"s choice is all. The martyr for truth, the righteous man whose life has saved the world, but who is not elected, is d.a.m.ned for ever in burning h.e.l.l. "I am eternally chosen; for that I praise G.o.d. I do not understand it. If I did, could I praise Him? But I know my settled place in the divine decrees." I quote the beginning. It is pregnant with superb spiritual audacity, and kindled with imaginative pride.
There"s heaven above, and night by night I look right through its gorgeous roof; No suns and moons though e"er so bright Avail to stop me; splendour-proof Keep the broods of stars aloof: For I intend to get to G.o.d, For "tis to G.o.d I speed so fast, For in G.o.d"s breast, my own abode, Those shoals of dazzling glory, pa.s.sed, I lay my spirit down at last.
I lie where I have always lain, G.o.d smiles as he has always smiled; Ere suns and moons could wax and wane, Ere stars were thunder-girt, or piled The heavens, G.o.d thought on me his child; Ordained a life for me, arrayed Its circ.u.mstances every one To the minutest; ay, G.o.d said This head this hand should rest upon Thus, ere he fashioned star or sun.
And having thus created me, Thus rooted me, he bade me grow, Guiltless for ever, like a tree That buds and blooms, nor seeks to know The law by which it prospers so: But sure that thought and word and deed All go to swell his love for me, Me, made because that love had need Of something irreversibly Pledged solely its content to be.
As to _A Grammarian"s Funeral_, that poem also belongs to the German rather than to the Italian spirit. The Renaissance in Italy lost its religion; at the same time, in Germany, it added a reformation of religion to the New Learning. The Renaissance in Italy desired the fulness of knowledge in this world, and did not look for its infinities in the world beyond. In Germany the same desire made men call for the infinities of knowledge beyond the earth. A few Italians, like Savonarola, like M. Angelo, did the same, and failed to redeem their world; but eternal aspiration dwelt in the soul of every German who had gained a religion. In Italy, as the Renaissance rose to its luxury and trended to its decay, the pull towards personal righteousness made by belief in an omnipotent goodness who demands the subjection of our will to his, ceased to be felt by artists, scholars and cultivated society. A man"s will was his only law. On the other hand, the life of the New Learning in Germany and England was weighted with a sense of duty to an eternal Righteousness. The love of knowledge or beauty was modified into seriousness of life, carried beyond this life in thought, kept clean, and, though filled with incessant labour on the earth, aspired to reach its fruition only in the life to come.
This is the spirit and the atmosphere of the _Grammarian"s Funeral_, and Browning"s little note at the beginning says that its time "was shortly after the revival of learning in Europe." I have really no proof that Browning laid the scene of his poem in Germany, save perhaps the use of such words as "thorp" and "croft," but there is a clean, pure morning light playing through the verse, a fresh, health-breathing northern air, which does not fit in with Italy; a joyous, buoyant youthfulness in the song and march of the students who carry their master with gay strength up the mountain to the very top, all of them filled with his aspiring spirit, all of them looking forward with gladness and vigour to life--which has no relation whatever to the temper of Florentine or Roman life during the age of the Medici. The bold brightness, moral earnestness, pursuit of the ideal, spiritual intensity, reverence for good work and for the man who did it, which breathe in the poem, differ by a whole world from the atmosphere of life in _Andrea del Sarto_. This is a crowd of men who are moving upwards, who, seizing the Renaissance elements, knitted them through and through with reformation of life, faith in G.o.d, and hope for man. They had a future and knew it. The semi-paganism of the Renaissance had not, and did not know it had not.
We may close this series of Renaissance representations by _A Toccata of Galuppi"s_. It cannot take rank with the others as a representative poem. It is of a different cla.s.s; a changeful dream of images and thoughts which came to Browning as he was playing a piece of eighteenth-century Venetian music. But in the dream there is a sketch of that miserable life of fruitless pleasure, the other side of which was dishonourable poverty, into which Venetian society had fallen in the eighteenth century. To this the pride, the irreligion, the immorality, the desire of knowledge and beauty for their own sake alone, had brought the n.o.blest, wisest, and most useful city in Italy. That part of the poem is representative. It is the end of such a society as is drawn in _The Bishop orders his Tomb at St. Praxed"s Church_. That tomb is placed in Rome, but it is in Venice that this cla.s.s of tombs reached their greatest splendour of pride, opulence, folly, debas.e.m.e.nt and irreligion.
Finally, there are a few poems which paint the thoughts, the sorrows, the pleasures, and the political pa.s.sions of modern Italy. There is the _Italian in England_, full of love for the Italian peasant and of pity for the patriot forced to live and die far from his motherland. Mazzini used to read it to his fellow-exiles to show them how fully an English poet could enter into the temper of their soul. So far it may be said to represent a type. But it scarcely comes under the range of this chapter.
But _Up in a Villa, down in the City_, is so vivid a representation of all that pleased a whole type of the city-bred and poor n.o.bles of Italy at the time when Browning wrote the _Dramatic Lyrics_ that I cannot omit it. It is an admirable piece of work, crowded with keen descriptions of nature in the Casentino, and of life in the streets of Florence. And every piece of description is so filled with the character of the "Italian person of quality" who describes them--a petulant, humorous, easily angered, happy, observant, ignorant, poor gentleman--that Browning entirely disappears. The poem retains for us in its verse, and indeed in its light rhythm, the childlikeness, the _navete_, the simple pleasures, the ignorance, and the honest boredom with the solitudes of nature--of a whole cla.s.s of Italians, not only of the time when it was written, but of the present day. It is a delightful, inventive piece of gay and pictorial humour.
CHAPTER XIII
_WOMANHOOD IN BROWNING_
The first woman we meet in Browning"s poetry is Pauline; a twofold person, exceedingly unlike the woman usually made by a young poet. She is not only the Pauline idealised and also materialised by the selfish pa.s.sion of her lover, but also the real woman whom Browning has conceived underneath the lover"s image of her. This doubling of his personages, as seen under two diverse aspects or by two different onlookers, in the same poem, is not unfrequent in his poetry, and it pleased his intellect to make these efforts. When the thing was well done, its cleverness was amazing, even imaginative; when it was ill done, it was confusing. Tennyson never did this; he had not a.n.a.lytic power enough. What he sees of his personages is all one, quite clearly drawn and easy to understand. But we miss in them, and especially in his women, the intellectual play, versatility and variety of Browning.
Tennyson"s women sometimes border on dulness, are without that movement, change and surprises, which in women disturb mankind for evil or for good. If Tennyson had had a little more of Browning"s imaginative a.n.a.lysis, and Browning a little less of it, both would have been better artists.
The Pauline of the lover is the commonplace woman whom a young man so often invents out of a woman for his use and pleasure. She is to be his salvation, to sympathise with his ideals, joys and pains, to give him everything, with herself, and to live for him and him alone. Nothing can be more _naf_ and simple than this common selfishness which forgets that a woman has her own life, her own claim on the man, and her own individuality to develop; and this element in the poem, which never occurs again in Browning"s poetry, may be the record of an early experience. If so, he had escaped from this youthful error before he had finished the poem, and despised it, perhaps too much. It is excusable and natural in the young. His contempt for this kind of love is embodied in the second Pauline. She is not the woman her lover imagines her to be, but far older and more experienced than her lover; who has known long ago what love was; who always liked to be loved, who therefore suffers her lover to expatiate as wildly as he pleases; but whose life is quite apart from him, enduring him with pleasurable patience, criticising him, wondering how he can be so excited. There is a dim perception in the lover"s phrases of these elements in his mistress"
character; and that they are in her character is quite plain from the patronising piece of criticism in French which Browning has put into her mouth. The first touch of his humour appears in the contrast of the gentle and lofty boredom of the letter with the torrents of love in the poem. And if we may imagine that the lover is partly an image of what Browning once felt in a youthful love, we may also think that the making of the second and critical Pauline was his record, when his love had pa.s.sed, of what he thought about it all.
This mode of treatment, so much more a.n.a.lytic than imaginative, belongs to Browning as an artist. He seems, while he wrote, as if half of him sat apart from the personages he was making, contemplating them in his observant fashion, discussing them coolly in his mind while the other half of him wrote about them with emotion; placing them in different situations and imagining what they would then do; inventing trials for them and recombining, through these trials, the elements of their characters; arguing about and around them, till he sometimes loses the unity of their personality. This is a weakness in his work when he has to create characters in a drama who may be said, like Shakespeare"s, to have, once he has created them, a life of their own independent of the poet. His spinning of his own thoughts about their characters makes us often realise, in his dramas, the individuality of Browning more than the individuality of the characters. We follow him at this work with keen intellectual pleasure, but we do not always follow him with a pa.s.sionate humanity.
On the contrary, this habit, which was one cause of his weakness as an artist in the drama, increased his strength as an artist when he made single pictures of men and women at isolated crises in their lives; or when he pictured them as they seemed at the moment to one, two, or three differently tempered persons--pictorial sketches and studies which we may hang up in the chambers of the mind for meditation or discussion.
Their intellectual power and the emotional interest they awaken, the vivid imaginative lightning which illuminates them in flashes, arise out of that part of his nature which made him a weak dramatist.
Had he chosen, for example, to paint Lady Carlisle as he conceived her, in an isolated portrait, and in the same circ.u.mstances as in his drama of _Strafford_, we should have had a clear and intimate picture of her moving, alive at every point, amidst the decay and shipwreck of the Court. But in the play she is a shade who comes and goes, unoutlined, confused and confusing, scarcely a woman at all. The only clear hints of what Browning meant her to be are given in the _asides_ of Strafford.