Western Physical Science in the New Ideology.
The third element of the nationalist ideology proposed by Sun Yat-sen was the introduction of Western science. It is upon this that his break with the past arose; it is this that gives his ideology its partially revolutionary character, for the ideology was, as we have seen, strongly reconst.i.tutional in two of its elements. Sun Yat-sen was, however, willing to tear down if he could rebuild, and rebuild with the addition of Western science. These questions immediately arise: why did he wish to add Western science to the intellectual background of modern China? what, in Western science, did he wish to add? to what degree did he wish Western science to play its role in the development of a new ideology for China?
Sun Yat-sen did not have to teach the addition of Western science to the Chinese ideology. In his own lifetime the terrific swing from arrogant self-a.s.surance to abject imitativeness had taken place. Sun Yat-sen said that the Boxer Rebellion was the last surge of the old Chinese nationalism, "But the war of 1900 was the last manifestation of self-confidence thoughts and self-confidence power on the part of the Chinese to oppose the new civilization of Europe and of America.... They understood that the civilization of Europe and of America was really much superior to the ancient civilization of China."(93) He added that this superiority was naturally evident in the matter of armaments. This ill.u.s.trates both consequences of the impact of the West-the endangered position of the Chinese society, and the consequent instability of the Chinese ideology.
Sun Yat-sen did not regard the introduction of Western science into Chinese life as merely remedial in nature, but, on the contrary, saw much benefit in it. This was especially clear to him as a physician; his training led him to see the abominable practices of many of the Chinese in matters of diet and hygiene.(94) He made a sweeping claim of Western superiority, which is at the same time a sharp limitation of it in fields which the conservative European would be likely to think of as foremost-politics, ethics, religion. "Besides the matter of armaments, the means of communication ... are far superior.... Moreover, in everything else that relates to machinery or daily human labor, in methods of agriculture, of industry, and of commerce, all (foreign) methods by far surpa.s.s those of China."(95)
Sun Yat-sen pointed out the fact that while manuals of warfare become obsolete in a very few years in the West, political ideas and inst.i.tutions do not. He cited the continuance of the same pattern of government in the United States, and the lasting authority of the _Republic_ of Plato, as examples of the stagnation of the Western social sciences as contrasted with physical sciences. Already prepossessed in favor of the Chinese knowledge and morality in non-technical matters, he did not demand the introduction of Western social methods as well. He had lived long enough in the West to lose some of the West-worship that characterized so many Chinese and j.a.panese of his generation. He was willing, even anxious, that the experimental method, by itself, be introduced into Chinese thought in all fields,(96) but not particularly impressed with the general superiority of Western social thought.
Sun Yat-sen"s own exposition of the reasons for his desiring to limit the role played by Western science in China is quite clear.(97) In the first place, Sun Yat-sen was vigorously in favor of adopting the experimental method in attaining knowledge. He stood firmly for the pragmatic foundation of knowledge, and for the exercise of the greatest care and most strenuous effort in discovering it. Secondly, he believed in taking over the physical knowledge of the Westerners, although-in his emphasis on Chinese talent-he by no means believed that Western physical knowledge would displace that of the Chinese altogether. "We can safely imitate the material civilization of Europe and of America; we may follow it blindly, and if we introduce it in China, it will make good headway."(98) Thirdly, he believed that the social science of the West, and especially its political philosophy, might lead the Chinese into gross error, since it was derived from a quite different ideology, and not relevant to Chinese conditions. "It would be a gross error on our part, if, disregarding our own Chinese customs and human sentiments, we were to try to force upon (our people) a foreign type of social government just as we copy a foreign make of machinery."(99) Fourthly, even apart from the difference between China and the West which invalidated Western social science in China, he did not believe that the West had attained to anything like the same certainty in social science that it had in physical science.(100) Fifthly, Sun Yat-sen believed that the Chinese should profit by observing the experiments and theories of the West in regard to social organization, without necessarily following them.
The great break between Sun Yat-sen"s acceptance of Western physical science and his rejection of Western social science is demonstrated by his belief that government is psychological in its foundations. "Laws of human government also const.i.tute an abstract piece of machinery-for that reason we speak of the machinery of an organized government-but a material piece of machinery is based on nature, whereas the immaterial machinery of government is based on psychology."(101) Sun Yat-sen pointed out, although in different words, that government was based upon the ideology and that the ideology of a society was an element in the last a.n.a.lysis psychological, however much it might be conditioned by the material environment.
Of these three elements-Chinese morality, Chinese social and political knowledge, and Western physical science-the new ideology for the modern Chinese society was to be formed. What the immediate and the ultimate forms of that society were to be, remains to be studied.
The Consequences of the Nationalist Ideology.
What are the consequences of this Nationalistic ideology? What sort of society did Sun Yat-sen envision? How much of it was to be Chinese, and how much Western? Were the Chinese, like some modern j.a.panese, to take pride in being simultaneously the most Eastern of Eastern nations and the most Western of Western or were they to seek to remain fundamentally what their ancestors had been for uncounted centuries?
In the first place, Sun Yat-sen"s proposed ideology was, as we have seen, to be composed of four elements. First, the essential core of the old ideology, to which the three necessary revivifying elements were to be added. This vast unmentioned foundation is highly significant to the a.s.sessment of the nature of the new Chinese ideology. (It is quite apparent that Sun Yat-sen never dreamed, as did the Russians, of overthrowing the _entire_ traditional order of things. His three modifications were to be added to the existing Chinese civilization.) Second, he wished to revive the old morality. Third, he desired to restore the ancient knowledge and skill of the Chinese to their full creative energy. Fourth, he desired to add Western science. The full significance of this must be realized in a consideration of Chinese nationalism. Sun Yat-sen did not, like the Meiji Emperor, desire to add the whole front of Western culture; he was even further from emulating the Russians in a destruction of the existing order and the development of an entirely new system. His energies were directed to the purification and reconst.i.tution of the Chinese ideology by the strengthening of its own latent moral and intellectual values, and by the innovation of Western physical science and the experimental method. Of the range of the ideology, of the indescribably complex intellectual conditionings in which the many activities of the Chinese in their own civilization were carried on, Sun Yat-sen proposed to modify only those which could be improved by a reaction to the excellencies of Chinese antiquity, or benefited by the influence of Western science. Sun Yat-sen was, as Wilhelm states, both a revolutionary and a reconst.i.tutionary. He was reconst.i.tutionary in the ideology which he proposed, and a revolutionary by virtue of the political methods which he was willing to sanction and employ in carrying the ideology into the minds of the Chinese populace.
In the second place, Sun Yat-sen proposed to modify the old ideology not only with respect to content but also with regard to method of development. The Confucians had, as we have seen, provided for the continual modification and rectification of the ideology by means of the doctrine of _cheng ming_. It is a matter of dispute as to what degree that doctrine const.i.tuted a scientific method for propagating knowledge.(102) Whatever the method of the ancients, Sun Yat-sen proposed to modify it in three steps: the acknowledgment of the pragmatic foundations of social ideas, the recognition of the necessity for knowledge before action, and the introduction of the experimental method. His pragmatic position shows no particular indication of having been derived from any specific source; it was a common enough tendency in old Chinese thought, from the beginning; in advocating it, Sun Yat-sen may have been revolutionary only in his championing of an idea which he may well have had since early childhood. His stress upon the necessity of ideological clarity as antecedent to revolutionary or any other kind of action is negatively derived from w.a.n.g Yang-ming, whose statement of the converse Sun Yat-sen was wont to attack. The belief in the experimental method is clearly enough the result of his Western scientific training-possibly in so direct a fashion as the personal influence of one of his instructors, Dr. James Cantlie, later Sir James Cantlie, of Queen"s College, Hongkong. Sun Yat-sen was a physician; his degree _Dr._ was a medical and not an academic one; and there is no reason to overlook the influence of his vocation, a Western one, in estimating the influence of the Western experimental method.(103)
The overwhelming preponderance of Chinese elements in the new ideology proposed by Sun Yat-sen must not hide the fact that, in so stable an ideology as that of old China, the modifications which Sun advocated were highly significant. In method, experimentalism;(104) in background, the whole present body of Western science-these were to move China deeply, albeit a China that remained Chinese. There is a fundamental difference between Sun"s doctrine of ideological extension ("the need for knowledge") and Confucius" doctrine of ideological rectification (_cheng ming_).
Confucius advocated the establishment of a powerful ideology for the purpose of extending ideological control and thereby of minimizing the then pernicious effects of the politically active proto-nations of his time. Sun Yat-sen, reared in a world subject to ideological control, saw no real necessity for strengthening it; what he desired was to prepare China psychologically for the development of a clear-cut conscious nation and a powerful government as the political instrument of that nation. In spite of the great Chinese emphasis which Sun p.r.o.nounced in his ideology, and in spite of his many close a.s.sociations with old Chinese thought, his governmental principles are in a sense diametrically opposed to Confucianism. Confucius sought to establish a totalitarian system of traditional controls which would perpetuate society and civilization regardless of the misadventures or inadequacies of government. Sun Yat-sen was seeking to build a strong liberal protective state within the framework of an immemorial society which was largely non-political; his doctrine, which we may call totalitarianism in reverse, tended to encourage intellectual freedom rather than any rigid ideological coordination. The mere fact that Sun Yat-sen trusted the old Chinese ideology to the ordeal of free criticism is, of course, further testimony to his belief in the fundamental soundness of the old intellectual order-an order which needed revision and supplementation to guide modern China through the perils of its destiny.
Before pa.s.sing to a brief consideration of the nature of the society to be developed through this nationalist ideology, it may be interesting to note the value-scheme in the ideology. There was but one value-the survival of the Chinese people with their own civilization. All other considerations were secondary; all other reforms were means and not ends. Nationalism, democracy, and _min sheng_ were each indispensable, but none was superior to the supreme desideratum, Chinese survival. That this survival was a vivid problem to Sun, almost any of his lectures will testify. Tai Chi-tao, one of the inner circle of Sun Yat-sen"s disciples, summarized the spirit of this nationalism when he wrote; "We are Chinese, and those things that we have to change first lie in China. But if all things in China have become worthless, if Chinese culture no longer has any significance in the cultural history of the world, if the Chinese people has lost its power of holding its culture high, we might as well wait for death with bound hands-what would be the use of going on with revolution?"(105) Sun Yat-sen made concessions to cosmopolitanism, which he saw as ideal to be realized in the remote future. First and last, however, he was concerned with his own people, the Chinese.
What was to be the nature of the society which would arise from the knowledge and application of the new ideology? Sun planned to introduce the idea of a race-nation into the Chinese ideology, to replace the definite but formless we-you outlook which the Chinese of old China had had toward outsiders almost indiscriminately.(106) The old anti-barbarian sentiment had from time to time in the past been very powerful; Sun Yat-sen called this nationalism also, not distinguishing it from the new kind of nationalism which he advocated-a modern nationalism necessarily connoting a plurality of equal nations. The self-consciousness of the Chinese he wished to restore, although on a basis of justice and the mutual recognition by the nations of each other"s right to exist. But this nationalism was not to be a complete break with the past, for the new China was to continue the traditional function of old China-of being the teacher and protectress of Eastern Asia. It was the duty of China to defend the oppressed among the nations, and to smite down the Great Powers in their oppressiveness. We may suppose that this benevolence of the Chinese race-nation would benefit the neighbors of China only so long as those neighbors, quickened themselves by nationalist resurgences, did not see something sinister in the benevolent manifest destiny of the Chinese.
It was a matter of policy, rather than of ideology, as to what the Chinese nation was to include. There were possibilities of a conflict with the Communists over the question of Outer Mongolia. Physically, Sun saw the Mongols as one of the five component peoples of the Great Chung-hua Republic. At another time he suggested that they might become a.s.similated.
He never urged the Mongols to separate from China and join the Soviet Union, or even continue as a completely independent state.(107) There was always the possibility of uncertainty in the case of persons who were-by the five principle elements of race (according to Sun Yat-sen, blood, livelihood, language, religion, and mores)(108)-members of the Chinese race-nation but did not consider themselves such.
Chinese nationalism was to lead to cosmopolitanism. Any attempt to foster cosmopolitanism before solving the national problem was not only Utopian but perverse. The weakness of the Chinese had in great part been derived from their delusions of world-order in a world that was greater than they imagined, and the true solution to the Chinese question was to be found, not in any vain theory for the immediate salvation of the world as a whole, but in the diligent and patriotic activities of the Chinese in their own country. China was to help the oppressed nations of the earth, not the oppressed cla.s.ses. China was to help all Asia, and especially the countries which had depended upon China for protection, and had been failed in their hour of need by the impotent Manchu Dynasty. China was, indeed, to seek the cooperation of the whole world, and the promotion of universal peace. But China was to do all this only when she was in a position to be able to do so, and not in the meantime venture forth on any splendid fantasies which would profit no people.
The survival of China was the supreme aim of Sun Yat-sen. How did he propose that China, once conscious of itself, should control itself to survive and go onwards to the liberation and enrichment of mankind? These are questions that he answered in his ideology of democracy and of _min sheng_.
CHAPTER III. THE THEORY OF DEMOCRACY.
Democracy in the Old World-Society.
In describing a few of the characteristics of the old ideology and the old society which may a.s.sist the clarification of the principle of democracy, it may prove useful to enter into a brief examination of what the word may mean in the West, to refer to some of the ideas and inst.i.tutions of old China that were or were not in accord with the Western notion of democracy, and, finally, to see what connection Sun Yat-sen"s theory of democracy may have either with the Western term or with elements in the Chinese background. Did Sun Yat-sen propound an entirely new theory as the foundation of his theory of democracy for the Chinese race-nation, or did he a.s.sociate several hitherto unrelated ideas and systems to make a new whole?
The European word _democracy_ may, for the purposes of this examination, be taken to have two parts to its meaning; first, with regard to the status of individuals in society; second, with respect to the allocation of political power in society. In the former sense, democracy may refer to an equalitarianism of status, or to a social mobility so easy and so general as to encourage the impression that position is a consequence of the behavior of the individual, and a fair gauge to his merit. In the latter part of the meaning, democracy may refer to the identification of the governed and the governors, or to the coincidence of the actions of the governors with the wishes of the governed. Each of these ideas-equalitarianism, free mobility, popular government, and representative government-has been referred to as the essence of democracy. One of them may lead to the discovery of a significance for democracy relevant to the scheme of things in the old Chinese society.
Egalitarianism and mobility were both present in old Chinese society. The Chinese have had neither an hereditary aristocracy equivalent to the Western, nor a caste-system resembling that of India or j.a.pan, since the breakdown of the feudal system twenty-three centuries ago.(109) The extra-legal egalitarianism of the Chinese has been so generally remarked upon by persons familiar with that nation, that further discussion of it here is superfluous. Birth has probably counted less in China than it has in any other country in the world.
The egalitarianism of intercourse was a powerful aid to social mobility.
The Chinese never pretended to economic, political, or intellectual equality; the mere statement of such a doctrine would have been sufficient refutation of it to the members of the old society. Yet there were no gradations of weight beyond educational, political, and economic distinctions, and the organization of the old society was such that mobility in these was relatively free. Movement of an individual either upwards or downwards in the economic, political, or academic scale was r.e.t.a.r.ded by the influence of the family, which acted as a drag either way.
Movement was nevertheless continuous and conspicuous; a proof of this movement is to be found in the fact that there are really no supremely great families in China, comparable to the great names of j.a.pan or of the Euramerican nations. (The closest approximation to this is the _K"ung_ family, the family of Confucius; since the family is large, its eminence is scarcely more than nominal and it has no political power.).
Mobility in China was fostered by the political arrangements. The educational-administrative system provided a channel upwards and downwards. The government tended, for the most part, to be the way up, while the economic system was the way down for prominent official families. Few families managed to remain eminent for more than a few generations, and-with the great size of families-there was always room at the top. If a man were not advancing himself, there was always the possibility that a kinsman might win preferment, to the economic and political advantage of the whole family group.
Social relations-in the narrowest sense of the word-were characterized by an extreme attention to form as such, and great contempt for it otherwise.
Ritualism never became a chivalry or a cult of honor. There was always the emphasis upon propriety and courtesy but, once the formalities were done with, there was little social distinction between members of different economic, political, or academic cla.s.ses.(110)
In connection with control and representation, a great deal more can be said. In the first place, the relations between the governing ideologue in the Confucian teachings,(111) and the governed accepters of the ideology in the Confucian system were to be discovered through _yueh_.
_Yueh_, commonly translated "music" or "harmony," plays a peculiar role in the Confucian teachings. It is the ma.s.s and individual emotional pattern, as _li_ is the behavior pattern. If the people follow the proper behavior pattern, their emotional pattern must also be good. Consequently, the function of a truly excellent ruler was the scrutiny of _yueh_. If he were a man of superior penetration, he should be able to feel the _yueh_ about him, and thus discover the temper of the populace, without reference to electoral machinery or any other government instrumentality. _Yueh_ is to be seen in the tone of voices, in the rhythm of behavior. If it is good, it will act with increasing effect upon itself. If bad, it serves as a warning to the authorities. As Prof. Hsu says, "For rulers and administrators _yueh_ has two uses; first, it enables them to ascertain the general sentiment of the people toward the government and political life; and second, it cultivates a type of individual att.i.tude that is most harmonious with the environment. The joint work of _li_ and _yueh_ would produce social harmony and social happiness-which is the ultimate aim of the State."(112)
_Yueh_ is, however, a peculiar phenomenon, which can scarcely be called either representation or control. It is an idea rooted in the curiously pragmatic-mystical world-view of the Confucians, that same world-view which elevated virtue almost to the level of a physical substance, subject to the same sort of laws of disruption or transmission. Nothing like _yueh_ can be found in Western political thought; however significant it may have been in China, any attempt to deal with it in a Western language would have more than a touch of futility, because of the great chasm of strangeness that separates the two intellectual worlds at so many places.
A more concrete ill.u.s.tration of the old Chinese ideas of popular control may be found in the implications of political Confucianism, as Hsu renders them:
From the Confucian doctrine of stewardship, namely, that the king is an ordinary person selected by G.o.d upon his merit to serve as the steward of G.o.d in the control of the affairs of the people for the welfare of the people, there are deduced five theories of political democracy. In the first place, the government must respect public opinion. The will of the people is the will of G.o.d, and thus the king should obey both the will of the people and the will of G.o.d....
In the second place, government should be based upon the consent of the governed....
In the third place, the people have a duty as well as a right to carry on revolution as the last resort in stopping tyranny....
Revolution is regarded as a natural blessing; it guards against tyranny and promotes the vitality of the people. It is in complete harmony with natural law.
In the fourth place, the government exists for the welfare of the people.
In the fifth place, liberty, equality and equity should be preserved. The State belong equally to all; and so hereditary n.o.bility, hereditary monarchy, and despotism are deplored.
Confucius and his disciples seem to advocate a democracy under the form of an elective monarchy or a const.i.tutional monarchy....
Local self-government is recognized in the Confucian system of government.... The Confucian theory of educational election suggests the distinctly new idea of representation.(113)
This summary could scarcely be improved upon although it represents a considerable lat.i.tude of interpretation in the subject-matter of the cla.s.sics. The voice of the people was the voice of G.o.d. From other political writers of antiquity-Meng Tzu, Mo Ti, Han Fei Tzu and the Legalists, and others-the Chinese received a variety of political interpretations, none of which fostered the development of autocracy as it developed in Europe.
The reason for this is simple. In addition to the eventual popular control of government, and the necessity for the close attention of the government to the wishes of the people, the cla.s.sical writers, for the most part, did not emphasize the position of government. With the increasing ideological solidarity of the Chinese world, the increasing antiquity and authority of tradition, and the stability of the social system, the Chinese states withered away-never completely, but definitely more so than their a.n.a.logues in the West. There appeared, consequently, in China a form of laissez-faire that surpa.s.sed that of Europe completely in thoroughness.
Not only were the economic functions of the state reduced to a minimum-so was its police activity. Old China operated with a government in reserve, as it were; a government which was nowhere nearly so important to its subjects as Western governments commonly are. The government system was one democratic in that it was rooted in a society without intransigeant cla.s.s lines, with a considerable degree of social mobility for the individual, with the total number of individuals exercising a terrific and occasionally overwhelming pressure against the political system. And yet it was not the governmental system upon which old China might have based its claim to be a democracy. It could have, had it so wished, claimed that name because of the weakness or the absence of government, and the presence of other social organizations permitting the individual a considerable amount of latent pressure to exercise upon his social environment.
This arose from the nature of the large non-political organizations which sustained Chinese civilization even more than did the educational-administrative authorities. It is obvious that, in theory, a free and una.s.sociated individual in a laissez-faire polity would be defenseless against extra-politically organized persons. The equities of modern democracy lie largely in the development of a check and balance system of pressure groups, affording each individual adequate means of exercising pressure on behalf of his various interests. It was this function-the development of a just statement of pressure-groups-which the old Chinese world-society developed for the sufficient representation of the individual.