If it made a difference at what moment something was done, that difference could only be determined by observing the variations that one night presented from the other. The astrologers observed that many of the stars were, or seemed to be, fixed in their orbits; others rose and set like the sun and moon, and appeared in different parts of the heavens at different seasons of the year. The regularity of these changes made it possible to study the course of these stars, and as knowledge progressed, to determine also in advance where a particular body would be seen at a certain time.
The planets accordingly were the bodies to which the astrologers especially directed their attention. It has been conjectured with some show of probability that one of the purposes served by the lofty seven staged towers,[595] which were attached to many of the great temples, was for the better observation of the movements of the planets. The official standing of the astrologers is indicated by the references in texts to the "court astrologer."
However this may be, there is no doubt that at all the large temples and at many of the smaller ones, observations of the planets were recorded.
The collection of these observations formed the manuals for the priests in answering many of the questions put to them. Each of the great planets was identified (by a process of thought that we will have occasion to describe) with some deity, though this was not done until the attempt was also made to gather the astrological knowledge of the day into some kind of consistent system. Our own names of the planets, as handed down to us through the Greeks and Romans, are but the cla.s.sical equivalents of the Babylonian deities.[596]
Jupiter is Marduk, the head of the Babylonian pantheon. Venus is the Babylonian Ishtar. Mars is Nergal, the G.o.d of war and pestilence.
Mercury is Nabu, the G.o.d of wisdom and the messenger of the G.o.ds, and Saturn is Ninib.
Among the astrological texts preserved, Ishtar-Venus figures more prominently than the other planets. The appearance of Ishtar during each month and for various days of the month was noted, and then interpreted, partly on the basis of past experience, but also by other factors that for the most part escape us. A tablet, furnishing omens derived from the position of the planet Venus and which may belong to the series "Illumination of Bel," deals with the periods of the disappearance of Venus as evening star, and her reappearance as morning star, and _vice versa_[597].
In the month of Tammuz (4th month) Venus disappeared on the 25th day at sunset, for seven days was hidden[598], and on the 2d day of Ab (5th month) was seen at sunrise. Rains in the land.
Destruction of[599] ...
In the month of Adar (12th month) Venus disappeared on the 25th day at sunrise. For a year (?) weapons are wielded[600] (?), gold[599] ...
In the month of Marcheshwan (8th month), 10th day, Venus disappeared at sunrise, for two months and six days was hidden, and reappeared on the 16th day of Tebet (10th month). There will be abundant crops.
In the month of Elul (6th month), 26th day, Venus disappeared at sunset, for eleven days was hidden, and in the second[601] Elul, on the 7th day, reappeared at sunset. The heart of the land is good.[6]
In the month of Nisan (1st month), on the 9th day, Venus disappeared at sunsets[602] (?), and for five months and sixteen days was hidden, and reappeared in the month of Elul (6th month), on the 25th day, at sunset. The heart of the land is good.
In the month of Ab (5th month), 10th day, Venus disappeared at sunset[603] (?), and for two[604] months and sixteen days was hidden, and reappeared on the 26th day of Marcheshwan (8th month). Rains in the land.
In the month of Nisan, 2d day, Venus appeared at sunrise. There will be distress in the land.
If Venus is stationary to the 6th day of Kislev (9th month) at sunrise, and then disappears on the 7th day of Kislev, and is hidden for three months to reappear on the 8th day of Adar (12th month) at sunset, it indicates that king against king will send hostility.
In the month of Kislev (9th month), 10th day, Venus appeared at sunrise. Lack of corn and hay in the land. If she remains in position up to the 14th day of Ab (5th month) at sunrise, and then on the 15th day disappears, and for three months is hidden, and on the 15th day of Marcheshwan (8th month) rises at sunset, the crops of the land will be good.
A colophon informs us that the tablet in question embodies a series of observations of the movements of Venus recorded by Babylonian scholars.
It was evidently the purpose of the compilers to commit to writing as many variations in the appearance and disappearance of the planet as possible. The omens must either have been furnished at one time or they embody actual occurrences that were observed in connection with the observation recorded. In either case the omens served as guides for the priests in their replies to inquiries. An omen once furnished or an event once observed as having taken place under given conditions of a planet served for all times.
The omen lists for the other planets were arranged on the same principle as the Venus list. The motions of the planets were carefully observed.
It was noted whether they rose brilliantly or with a pale color. Their position towards other stars was determined, and much more the like.
Besides the planets, various stars that were distinguished by their brilliancy, as Sirius, Antares, Regulus, and also comets, were included in the sphere of astronomical calculations, and furnished omens to the priests.
These omens, so far as we may judge from the texts at present published, all hinge around the same series of events that are referred to in the ill.u.s.trations given,--rain, crops, war, distress, the country"s prosperity, the king"s welfare or misfortune.
Another piece of evidence is thus furnished for the hypothesis that these lists are based upon reports made to royal masters, and that the reports again are obtained from the lists prepared for public and political needs. We must not, however, conclude from this fact that the observation of heavenly phenomena was of no significance at all for the private individual, but only that the position of the king and the general welfare of the country were regarded of larger moment.
Just as the G.o.ds were held responsible chiefly for the larger affairs of this world, the trifles being relegated to the spirits and demons,[605]
so the planets and stars, as symbols of the G.o.ds, were regarded as auguries for the chief of the country rather than for the miscellaneous population, and more for the general welfare than for individual prosperity. The individual shared in the omen furnished, in so far as his well-being was dependent upon such important contingencies as whether there was to be war or peace, good crops or bad. A population so largely engaged in agriculture as the Babylonians were, would be satisfied if they could be rea.s.sured as to the outcome of their work in the fields. Ihering has properly emphasized the strong hold that the conception of communal interests obtained in Babylonia.[606] This conception is reflected in the prominence given to public and political affairs in the omen lists and "omen" reports. Agriculture was the primal factor in producing this conception in the south; war which united the population, even though military service was forced upon the people, was the second factor; and in a.s.syria, where military expeditions occupied a much larger share of public attention than in Babylonia, war became the chief factor in keeping alive the thought of national solidarity.
Omen Calendars.
There was still another reason why the king and with him public affairs, received such prominence in the omen texts. As the nation"s ruler he was not only an important personage by virtue of his power over his subjects, but also by virtue of his close relationship to the G.o.ds. The theory of the "divine right of kings" was rigidly adhered to in Babylonia and a.s.syria. When the monarchs speak of themselves as nominated by this or that G.o.d to be the ruler of the country, this was not a mere phrase. The king was the vicar of the deity on earth, his representative who enjoyed divine favor and who was admitted into the confidence of the G.o.ds. In earlier days priestly functions were indissolubly a.s.sociated with kingship. The oldest kings of a.s.syria call themselves "the priests of Ashur," and it is only as with the growth of political power a differentiation of functions takes place that the priest, as the mediator between the deity and his subjects, becomes distinct from the secular ruler.
The further development of this process led to the curious but perfectly natural anomaly that the king, from being originally identical with the priest, becomes in large measure dependent upon the latter in his relations to the G.o.ds. In the more advanced stages of the religious cult, the king requires the service of a priest to act as mediator between himself and the G.o.ds, precisely as all of his subjects need this mediatorship. The king cannot obtain an oracle directly. He must send to the temple and inquire of the priests. The priest must intercede for the king when he throws himself upon the mercy of an angered G.o.d or G.o.ddess.
The royal sacrifice is not acceptable unless the priest stands by the side of the king.
Still there are traces left of the old direct relationship existing between the king and his G.o.ds. A G.o.d sometimes reveals himself directly to a ruler. Ishtar appears in a dream and gives him directions. Another and more significant trace of this older relationship is to be found in the importance a.s.signed to the religious conduct of the king. If an individual offends a deity, the individual alone suffers, or at the most his family is involved in the punishment inflicted; but if the king sins, the whole country suffers, and correspondingly the king"s atonement and reconciliation with the G.o.ds is essential for dispelling some national calamity. Frazer has shown by his admirable investigations[607] that this view of kingship is common to many nations of antiquity. While it did not lead among the Babylonians and a.s.syrians to that extreme which is best ill.u.s.trated by j.a.pan, where the Mikado, by virtue of his divine right, is hedged in with prescribed formalities that make him almost a prisoner, so closely is he watched by his attendants lest any mistake be made by him which is certain to entail serious consequences for the country, still the priests had to see to it that the rulers performed their duties towards the G.o.ds in the prescribed manner and with all possible accuracy.
The conduct of the king was of special significance at periods when for some reason or other, the G.o.ds were not favorably disposed. Partly on the basis of actual observation that eclipses (which were especially feared) had occurred on certain days of the month, partly as a consequence of the belief that the change in the moon"s phase augured something good or evil for humanity, and in part perhaps through the coincidence that on a certain day of the month, mishaps of some kind had occurred several times, certain months and certain days of each month were regarded as favorable, while others were unfavorable. Some months and some days were suitable for dedicating a building, others were not.
On some days an oracle might be sought, on others not. Some days were days of rejoicing, on others again mourning was appropriate. Advantage had to be taken of the favorable days to keep the deity in good humor, and it was equally important on the unfavorable ones to exercise great care not to do aught which might arouse the anger of a G.o.d, ready to be incensed. It is the king who can best accomplish the one thing and avoid the other. To him, as standing nearer the deity than any private individual, the country looked for safety and protection. Calendars were prepared for each month of the year, in which the peculiar character of each day was noted and instructions added what was to be done on each day. These instructions all have reference to the king and to the king alone. A complete calendar for the intercalated month of Elul has been preserved.[608] It may serve as an example of the branch of the omen literature to which it belongs.
The thirty days of each month are taken up in succession. The deity to which each day is sacred is indicated, and various sacrifices or precautions prescribed.
A curious feature of this calendar was that, since it was the hope to make every day "favorable," each day was called so, even when it is evident that it was not.
For the 1st day of Elul the second,[609] sacred to Anu and Bel, a favorable day. When the moon makes its appearance in this month, the king of many peoples brings his gift, a gazelle together with fruit, ... his gift to Shamash, lord of the countries, and to Sin, the great G.o.d, he gives. Sacrifices he offers, and his prayer to his G.o.d[610] is acceptable.
On the 2d day sacred to G.o.ddesses, a favorable day. The king brings his gift to Shamash, the lord[611] of countries. To Sin, the great G.o.d, he offers sacrifices. His prayer to the G.o.d is acceptable.
On the 3d day, a day of supplication to Marduk and Sarpanitum, a favorable day. At night, in the presence of Marduk and Ishtar,[612] the king brings his gift. Sacrifices he is to offer so that his prayer may be acceptable.
On the 6th day, sacred to Ramman and Belit,[613] a favorable day. The king, with prayer and supplication (?), at night in the presence of Ramman, offers his gift. Sacrifices he is to bring so that his prayer may be acceptable.
On the 7th day, supplication to Marduk and Sarpanitum, a favorable day (_sc._ may it be). An evil day. The shepherd of many nations is not to eat meat roasted by the fire, or any food prepared by the fire. The clothes of his body he is not to change, fine dress (?) he is not to put on. Sacrifices he is not to bring, nor is the king to ride in his chariot. He is not to hold court nor is the priest to seek an oracle for him in the holy of holies.[614] The physician is not to be brought to the sick room.[615] The day is not suitable for invoking curses.[616] At night, in the presence of Marduk and Ishtar, the king is to bring his gift. Then he is to offer sacrifices so that his prayer may be acceptable.
This 7th day, it will be observed, is expressly called an evil day. It is evident, therefore, that the phrase "favorable day" in the first line expresses a hope and not a fact, or is added to indicate the manner in which the day can be converted into a favorable one. Just as the 7th day, so the 14th, 21st, and 28th are called evil days, and the same ceremonies are prescribed for the king on these days. These days were evidently chosen as corresponding to the phases of the moon. But besides these four days, a fifth, namely, the 19th, is singled out in the same fashion. The comparison with the Biblical Sabbath naturally suggests itself. The choice of the 7th day and of the corresponding ones rests, of course, in both instances upon the lunar calendar, and there is also this similarity between the Sabbath of the Hebrews and the "evil day" of the Babylonians, that the precautions prescribed in the Pentateuchal codes--against kindling fires, against leaving one"s home, against any productive labor--point to the Hebrew Sabbath as having been at its origin an "inauspicious day," on which it was dangerous to show oneself or to call the deity"s attention to one"s existence. Despite the attempts made to change this day to one of "joy," as Isaiah would have it,[617] the Hebrew Sabbath continued to retain for a long time as a trace of its origin, a rather severe and sombre aspect.
A striking difference, however, between the Babylonian and the Hebrew rites is the absence in the latter of the theory that the atonement of a single individual suffices for the community. The precautions prescribed for the Sabbath are binding upon every one. Emphasis is laid in the Pentateuch upon the fact that the whole people is holy, whereas among the Babylonians the king alone is holy. He alone is to abstain from his ordinary acts, to conduct himself on the evil day with becoming humility, to put on no fineries, not to indulge in dainty food,[618] not to appear in royal state, neither to appeal to the G.o.ds (for they will not hear them), nor even to interfere with their workings by calling in human aid against the demon of disease, who may have been sent as the messenger of one of the G.o.ds. It is only at the close of the day that he can bring a sacrifice which will be acceptable. The king, by observing these precautions, insures the welfare of his people. The G.o.ds cared little for individual piety, but they kept a jealous eye on their earthly representative. His appeals were heard if properly presented and if presented at the right time, but woe to the people whose king has aroused the divine anger. Just as his acts of penitence have a representative character, so the gifts and sacrifices and supplications mentioned in the calendar are offered by the king on behalf of the whole people.
For the remaining days of Elul, the ordinances have much the same character as those instanced. The variation consists chiefly in the G.o.d or G.o.ds to whom the days are sacred. Now it is Nabu and his consort Tashmitum--on the 4th, 8th, and 17th days--to whom gifts and prayers are brought; again Ninib and his consort Gula, on the 9th,[619]--or Gula alone, on the 19th. To Marduk and Sarpanitum the 16th day is a.s.signed, besides the 3d and 7th days as above set forth; to Ramman and his consort the 6th, to the old Bel and Belit the 5th, the 12th, the 25th, and to Nergal and Bau the 27th. At times two male deities are in a.s.sociation. So Anu and Bel for the 1st and the 30th day, Ea and Nergal for the 28th, Sin and Shamash for the 18th, 20th, 21st, and 22d, or two G.o.ddesses, as Tashmitum and Sarpanitum, or a G.o.d alone, as Ea for the 26th, or Sin alone for the 13th, and once--the 29th day--Sin and Shamash are combined with the miscellaneous group of Igigi and Anunnaki. All the great G.o.ds are thus represented in the calendar. The basis on which the days are a.s.signed still escapes us. It is hard to believe that any strict uniformity existed in this respect in the cults attached to the various Babylonian temples. Preference would be shown in each center to the chief G.o.d worshipped there, while to others would be a.s.signed a position corresponding to some theological system devised by the priests. Uniformity and consistency are two elements that must not be looked for in the omen literature of any people. The very fact that omens have some rational basis, namely, observation and experience, is the very reason why the omen lists and omen calendars of one place should differ from those of another, and precisely to the same degree that observation and experience differ.
The intercalated months, by virtue of their extraordinary character, had perhaps a special significance, but every day of the year had an importance of some kind. This is shown by a Babylonian calendar, fortunately preserved in great part,[620] in which every day of the year is included, and either its character noted or some precautions prescribed. The indications in this calendar are marked by their brevity, and impress one as memoranda, intended as a guide to the priests.
The calendar consists of twelve columns. At the head of each column stands the name of one of the months. One or, at the most, two lines are devoted to each day of the month, the days being ranged in succession from one to thirty. For a series of days in the 2d month the indications are:
21st day, hostility.
22d day, judgment favorable, invoking of curses.
23d day, heart not good.
24th day, gladness of heart.
25th day, wife not to be approached, heart not good.
26th day, secret.
Such indications it is evident are intelligible only to the initiated.
With the help of the more complete calendars, such as the one above explained, we can in most cases determine what is meant by these memoranda. A note like "hostility" is an omen that the G.o.ds are unfavorably inclined on that day. The "judgment" referred to on the 22d day is the oracle. The day in question is suitable for obtaining a response to a question put to the deity, and a favorable occasion for invoking curses upon the enemy. It will be recalled that the 7th day of the second intercalated Elul is put down as one when it is not advisable to secure the ill will of the G.o.d against the enemy. An expression like "heart not good" is explained by the contrast "heart glad." The 23d day of the month is a day of sorrow, the 24th one on which one may be cheerful without arousing the jealousy of the G.o.ds or demons. The 25th is again an unfavorable day in which, as a precaution, s.e.xual intercourse is prohibited. Lastly, the word rendered "secret"[621] is the same one that we came across in the precautions prescribed for the 7th day of the second Elul, where we are told that the priest is not to enter the "secret" place. This term appears to describe the "holy of holies" in the Babylonian temples where the oracles were obtained. The single word "secret" was a sufficient indication for the priest that on the day in question he might enter the mysterious chamber of the temple without trepidation.
Many of the days of the year are simply set down as "favorable" or "unfavorable," while others were noted as days portending "distress,"
"trouble," "tears," "injury," "everything favorable," "darkness," "moon obscured," and the like. Of special interest are the prohibitions regarding food on certain days. On the 9th day of the 2d month "fish is not to be eaten or sickness will ensue." Swine"s meat is forbidden on the 30th day of the 5th month, and in this case the particular kind of sickness--disease of the joints--is specified that will ensue in case of disobedience. On another day, the 25th of the 7th month, beef as well as pork is forbidden, while on the 10th day of the 8th month and the 27th day of the 6th month, dates are forbidden as a precaution against eye disease. One is not to cross a stream[622] on the 20th day of the 5th month; on certain days one is not to sell grain; other days are again noted as specially favorable for military movements.
Some of the precautions prescribed in this calendar may have been meant for the populace in general, such as the order not to cross a stream or to strike a bargain. The belief in lucky and unlucky days has a distinct popular flavor, but it is doubtful whether the ordinary public consulted the priests, as a general thing, in order to find out what days were lucky and what not. It is more plausible to a.s.sume that the priests embodied in their official calendars some of the notions that arose among the people, and gave to them an official sanction.
There are a considerable number of references to the king in the complete calendar under consideration, and we are permitted to a.s.sume, therefore, that the calendar served as a further guide for the priests in their instructions to the king. The allusion to oracles, curses, and weapons points in this same direction, and when, as in a number of instances, a day is described as one on which Shamash or some other G.o.d is "angry," it is in all probabilities against the ruler rather than against private individuals that the G.o.d"s displeasure has been manifested. A similar official and public character is borne by another calendar, where months alone are indicated and their significance interpreted.[623] The twelve months are arranged in as many columns.
Under each column the indications "favorable" or "not" are entered, while at the right end of the tablet the specifications are added for what undertakings the month is, or is not, favorable. One of these specifications is "the soldiery to make an attack upon a hostile city,"