We may postulate a local Arthur saga fusing an old Brythonic G.o.d with the historic sixth century Arthur. From this or from Geoffrey"s handling of it sprang the great romantic cycle. In the ninth century Nennius Arthur is the historic war-chief, possibly Count of Britain, but in the reference to his hunting the _Porcus Troit_ (the _Twrch Trwyth_) the mythic Arthur momentarily appears.[430] Geoffrey"s Arthur differs from the later Arthur of romance, and he may have partially rationalised the saga, which was either of recent formation or else local and obscure, since there is no reference to Arthur in the _Mabinogion_--a fact which shows that "in the legends of Gwynedd and Dyfedd he had no place whatever,"[431] and also that Arthur the G.o.d or mythic hero was also purely local. In Geoffrey Arthur is the fruit of Igerna"s _amour_ with Uther, to whom Merlin has given her husband"s shape. Arthur conquers many hosts as well as giants, and his court is the resort of all valorous persons. But he is at last wounded by his wife"s seducer, and carried to the Isle of Avallon to be cured of his wounds, and nothing more is ever heard of him.[432] Some of these incidents occur also in the stories of Fionn and Mongan, and those of the mysterious begetting of a wonder child and his final disappearance into fairyland are local forms of a tale common to all branches of the Celts.[433] This was fitted to the history of the local G.o.d or hero Arthur, giving rise to the local saga, to which was afterwards added events from the life of the historic Arthur. This complex saga must then have acquired a wider fame long before the romantic cycle took its place, as is suggested by the purely Welsh tales of _Kulhwych_ and the _Dream of Rhonabwy_, in the former of which the personages (G.o.ds) of the _Mabinogion_ figure in Arthur"s train, though he is far from being the Arthur of the romances.
Sporadic references to Arthur occur also in Welsh literature, and to the earlier saga belongs the Arthur who spoils Elysium of its cauldron in a _Taliesin_ poem.[434] In the _Triads_ there is a mingling of the historic, the saga, and the later romance Arthur, but probably as a result of the growing popularity of the saga Arthur he is added to many Triads as a more remarkable person than the three whom they describe.[435] Arthurian place-names over the Brythonic area are more probably the result of the popularity of the saga than that of the later romantic cycle, a parallel instance being found in the extent of Ossianic place-names over the Goidelic area as a result of the spread of the Fionn saga.
The character of the romance Arthur--the flower of knighthood and a great warrior--and the blending of the historic war-leader Arthur with the mythic Arthur, suggest that the latter was the ideal hero of certain Brythonic groups, as Fionn and Cuchulainn of certain Goidelic groups. He may have been the object of a cult as these heroes perhaps were, or he may have been a G.o.d more and more idealised as a hero. If the earlier form of his name was Artor, "a ploughman," but perhaps with a wider significance, and having an equivalent in Artaius, a Gaulish G.o.d equated with Mercury,[436] he may have been a G.o.d of agriculture who became a war-G.o.d. But he was also regarded as a culture-hero, stealing a cauldron and also swine from the G.o.ds" land, the last incident euhemerised into the tale of an unsuccessful theft from March, son of Meirchion,[437]
while, like other culture-heroes, he is a bard. To his story was easily fitted that of the wonder-child, who, having finally disappeared into Elysium (later located at Glas...o...b..ry), would reappear one day, like Fionn, as the Saviour of his people. The local Arthur finally attained a fame far exceeding that of any Brythonic G.o.d or hero.
Merlin, or Myrddin, appears in the romances as a great magician who is finally overcome by the Lady of the Lake, and is in Geoffrey son of a mysterious invisible personage who visits a woman, and, finally taking human shape, begets Merlin. As a son who never had a father he is chosen as the foundation sacrifice for Vortigern"s tower by his magicians, but he confutes them and shows why the tower can never be built, namely, because of the dragons in the pool beneath it. Then follow his prophecies regarding the dragons and the future of the country, and the story of his removal of the Giant"s Dance, or Stonehenge, from Ireland to its present site--an aetiological myth explaining the origin of the great stone circle. His description of how the giants used the water with which they washed the stones for the cure of sickness or wounds, probably points to some ritual for healing in connection with these megaliths. Finally, we hear of his transformation of the lovelorn Uther and of his confidant Ulfin, as well as of himself.[438] Here he appears as little more than an ideal magician, possibly an old G.o.d, like the Irish "G.o.d of Druidism," to whose legend had been attached a story of supernatural conception. Professor Rh[^y]s regards him as a Celtic Zeus or as the sun, because late legends tell of his disappearance in a gla.s.s house into the sea. The gla.s.s house is the expanse of light travelling with the sun (Merlin), while the Lady of the Lake who comes daily to solace Merlin in his enchanted prison is a dawn-G.o.ddess. Stonehenge was probably a temple of this Celtic Zeus "whose late legendary self we have in Merlin."[439] Such late romantic episodes and an aetiological myth can hardly be regarded as affording safe basis for these views, and their mythological interpretation is more than doubtful. The sun is never prisoner of the dawn as Merlin is of Viviane. Merlin and his gla.s.s house disappear for ever, but the sun reappears every morning. Even the most poetic mythology must conform in some degree to actual phenomena, but this cannot be said of the systems of mythological interpretation. If Merlin belongs to the pagan period at all, he was probably an ideal magician or G.o.d of magicians, prominent, perhaps, in the Arthur saga as in the later romances, and credited with a mysterious origin and an equally mysterious ending, the latter described in many different ways.
The boastful Kei of the romances appears already in _Kulhwych_, while in Geoffrey he is Arthur"s seneschal.[440] n.o.bler traits are his in later Welsh poetry; he is a mighty warrior, fighting even against a hundred, though his powers as a toper are also great. Here, too, his death is lamented.[441] He may thus have been a G.o.d of war, and his battle-fury may be poetically described in a curious pa.s.sage referring to him in _Kulhwych_: "His breath lasted nine days and nine nights under water. He could remain without sleep for the same period. No physician could heal a wound inflicted by his sword. When he pleased he could make himself as tall as the tallest tree in the wood. And when it rained hardest, whatever he carried remained dry above and below his hand to the distance of a handbreadth, so great was his natural heat. When it was coldest he was as glowing fuel to his companions."[442] This almost exactly resembles Cuchulainn"s aspect in his battle-fury. In a curious poem Gwenhyvar (Guinevere) extols his prowess as a warrior above that of Arthur, and in _Kulhwych_ and elsewhere there is enmity between the two.[443] This may point to Kei"s having been a G.o.d of tribes hostile to those of whom Arthur was hero.
Mabon, one of Arthur"s heroes in _Kulhwych_ and the _Dream of Rhonabwy_, whose name, from _mab_ (_map_), means "a youth," may be one with the G.o.d Maponos equated with Apollo in Britain and Gaul, perhaps as a G.o.d of healing springs.[444] His mother"s name, Modron, is a local form of _Matrona_, a river-G.o.ddess and probably one of the mother-G.o.ddesses as her name implies. In the _Triads_ Mabon is one of the three eminent prisoners of Prydein. To obtain his help in hunting the magic boar his prison must be found, and this is done by animals, in accordance with a _Marchen_ formula, while the words spoken by them show the immense duration of his imprisonment--perhaps a hint of his immortality.[445]
But he was also said to have died and been buried at Nantlle,[446]
which, like Gloucester, the place of his prison, may have been a site of his widely extended cult.[447]
Taken as a whole the various G.o.ds and heroes of the Brythons, so far as they are known to us, just as they resemble the Irish divinities in having been later regarded as mortals, magicians, and fairies, so they resemble them in their functions, dimly as these are perceived. They are a.s.sociated with Elysium, they are lords of fertility and growth, of the sea, of the arts of culture and of war. The prominent position of certain G.o.ddesses may point to what has already been discovered of them in Gaul and Ireland--their pre-eminence and independence. But, like the divinities of Gaul and Ireland, those of Wales were mainly local in character, and only in a few cases attained a wider popularity and cult.
Certain British G.o.ds mentioned on inscriptions may be identified with some of those just considered--Nodons with Nudd or Lludd, Belenos with Belinus or Beli, Maponos with Mabon, Taranos (in continental inscriptions only), with a Taran mentioned in _Kulhwych_.[448] Others are referred to in cla.s.sical writings--Andrasta, a G.o.ddess of victory, to whom Boudicca prayed;[449] Sul, a G.o.ddess of hot springs, equated with Minerva at Bath.[450] Inscriptions also mention Epona, the horse-G.o.ddess; Brigantia, perhaps a form of Brigit; Belisama (the Mersey in Ptolemy),[451] a G.o.ddess in Gaulish inscriptions. Others refer to the group G.o.ddesses, the _Matres_. Some G.o.ds are equated with Mars--Camulos, known also on the Continent and perhaps the same as c.u.mal, father of Fionn; Belatucadros, "comely in slaughter"; Cocidius, Corotiacus, Barrex, and Totatis (perhaps Lucan"s Teutates). Others are equated with Apollo in his character as a G.o.d of healing--Anextiomarus, Grannos (at Musselburgh and in many continental inscriptions), Arvalus, Mogons, etc.
Most of these and many others found on isolated inscriptions were probably local in character, though some, occurring also on the Continent, had attained a wider popularity.[452] But some of the inscriptions referring to the latter may be due to Gaulish soldiers quartered in Britain.
COMPARATIVE TABLE OF DIVINITIES WITH SIMILAR NAMES IN IRELAND, BRITAIN, AND GAUL.
_Italics denote names found in Inscriptions._
IRELAND. BRITAIN. GAUL.
_Anextiomarus_ _Anextiomarus_ Anu Anna (?) _Anoniredi_, "chariot of Anu"
Badb _Bodua_ Beli, Belinus _Belenos_ Belisama _Belisama_ Brigit _Brigantia_ _Brigindu_ Bron Bran Brennus (?) Buanann _Buanu_ c.u.mal _Camulos_ _Camulos_ Danu Don _Epona_ _Epona_ Goibniu Govannon _Grannos_ _Grannos_ Ler Llyr Lug Llew or Lleu (?) Lugus, _Lugores_ Mabon, _Maponos_ _Maponos_ Manannan Manawyddan _Matres_ _Matres_ Mider _Medros_ (?) Modron _Matrona_ (?) Nemon _Nemetona_ Net _Neton_ Nuada _Nodons_, Nudd Hael, Lludd (?) Ogma Ogmios _Silva.n.u.s_ _Silva.n.u.s_ Taran _Taranis_ _Totatis, Tutatis_ Teutates
FOOTNOTES:
[328] The text of the _Mabinogion_ has been edited by Rh[^y]s and Evans, 1887, and it has been translated into English by Lady Guest, and more critically, into French, by Loth. Many of the _Triads_ will be found in Loth"s second volume. For the poetry see Skene, _Four Ancient Books of Wales_.
[329] These incidents are found mainly in the story of Branwen, e.g.
those of the cauldron, a frequent accessory in Irish tales; the regeneration of the warriors, also found in the story of Mag-tured, though no cauldron is used; the red-hot house, occurring also in _Mesca Ulad_; the description of Bran paralleled by that of MacCecht.
[330] Anwyl, _ZCP_ i. 277, ii. 124, iii. 122.
[331] Bp. of S. Davids, _Vestiges of the Gael in Gwynned_, 1851; Rh[^y]s, _TSC_ 1894-1895, 21.
[332] Skene, i. 45; Meyer, _TSC_ 1895-1896, 55.
[333] Cf. John, _The Mabinogion_, 1901, 19. Curoi appears as Kubert, and Conchobar as Knychur in _Kulhwych_ (Loth, i. 202). A poem of _Taliesin_ has for subject the death of Corroi, son of Dayry (Curoi mac Daire), Skene, i. 254.
[334] Loth, _RC_ x. 356; John, _op. cit._ 19; Nutt, _Arch. Rev._ i. 331.
[335] The giant Ysppadden in _Kulhwych_ resembles Balor, but has no evil eye.
[336] Anwyl, _ZCP_ ii. 127-128, "The merging of the two legends [of Don and Taliesin] may have arisen through the fusion of Penllyn with Ardudwy and Arvon."
[337] Professor Rh[^y]s thinks that the Llyr family may be pre-Celtic, _TSC_ 1894-1895, 29 f.; _CFL_ 552.
[338] Loth, i. 97 f.; Lady Guest, iii. 143 f.
[339] See Nutt, _Folk-lore Record_, v. 1 f.
[340] Loth, i. 298, ii. 243-244; Geoffrey, _Hist. Brit._ ii. 11.
[341] Loth, i. 224, 265, ii. 215, 244; Geoff. ii. 11.
[342] Skene, i. 81; Rh[^y]s, _Academy_, Jan. 7, 1882.
[343] _Triads_, Loth, ii. 293; Nutt, _Folk-lore Record_, v. 9.
[344] _Hist. Brit._ ii. 11-14.
[345] _AL_ 131.
[346] Skene, i. 262.
[347] See Nutt-Meyer, ii. 17.
[348] Skene, i. 276.
[349] Loth, i. 208, 280; see also i. 197, ii. 245, 294.
[350] See Skene i. 355. The raven is rather the bird of prey come to devour Urien than his "attribute."
[351] Skene, i. 298.
[352] For these theories see Rh[^y]s, _HL_ 90_f_.; _AL_ ch. 11; _CFL_ 552.
[353] See Ch. XXIV.
[354] See p. 242.
[355] Loth, i. 65, ii. 285.
[356] _Hist. Brit._ iii. 1_f_. Geoffrey says that Billingsgate was called after Belinus, and that his ashes were preserved in the gate, a tradition recalling some connection of the G.o.d with the gate.
[357] An early Caradawc saga may have become mingled with the story of Caractacus.
[358] Rees, 77.
[359] So Elton, 291.
[360] _Folk-lore Record_, v. 29.
[361] Lady Guest, iii. 134.