Note that consonants written twice, as tt tt, ll ll, ss ss, nn nn, represent long, "double" consonants. At the end of words of more than one syllable these were usually shortened: as in Rohan Rohan from from Rochann Rochann (archaic (archaic Rochand Rochand).
In Sindarin the combinations ng ng, nd nd, mb mb, which were specially favoured in the Eldarin languages at an earlier stage, suffered various changes. mb mb became became m m in all cases, but still counted as a long consonant for purposes of stress (see below), and is thus written in all cases, but still counted as a long consonant for purposes of stress (see below), and is thus written mm mm in cases where otherwise the stress might be in doubt. in cases where otherwise the stress might be in doubt. 1 1 ng ng remained unchanged except initially and finally where it became the simple nasal (as in English remained unchanged except initially and finally where it became the simple nasal (as in English sing sing). nd nd became became nn nn usually, as usually, as Ennor Ennor "Middle-earth", Q. "Middle-earth", Q. Endore Endore; but remained nd nd at the end of fully accented monosyllables such as at the end of fully accented monosyllables such as thond thond "root" (cf. "root" (cf. Morthond Morthond "Blackroot"), and also before "Blackroot"), and also before r r, as Andros Andros "long-foam". This "long-foam". This nd nd is also seen in some ancient names derived from an older period, such as is also seen in some ancient names derived from an older period, such as Nargothrond Nargothrond, Gondolin Gondolin, Beleriand Beleriand. In the Third Age final nd nd in long words had become in long words had become n n from from nn nn, as in Ithilien Ithilien, Rohan Rohan, Anorien Anorien.
VOWELS.
For vowels the letters i i, e e, a a, o o, u u are used, and (in Sindarin only) are used, and (in Sindarin only) y y. As far as can be determined the sounds represented by these letters (other than y y) were of normal kind, though doubtless many local varieties escape detection. 2 2 That is, the sounds were approximately those represented by That is, the sounds were approximately those represented by i i, e e, a a, o o, u u in English in English machine machine, were were, father father, for for, brute brute, irrespective of quant.i.ty.
In Sindarin long e e, a a, o o had the same quality as the short vowels, being derived in comparatively recent times from them (older had the same quality as the short vowels, being derived in comparatively recent times from them (older e e, a a, o o had been changed). In Quenya long had been changed). In Quenya long e e and and o o were, when correctly were, when correctly 2 2 p.r.o.nounced, as by the Eldar, tenser and "closer" than the short vowels. p.r.o.nounced, as by the Eldar, tenser and "closer" than the short vowels.
Sindarin alone among contemporary languages possessed the "modified" or fronted u u, more or less as u u in French in French lune lune. It was partly a modification of o o and and u u, partly derived from older diphthongs eu eu, iu iu. For this sound y y has been used (as in ancient English): as in has been used (as in ancient English): as in lg lg "snake", Q. "snake", Q. leuca leuca, or emyn emyn pl. of pl. of amon amon "hill". In Gondor this "hill". In Gondor this y y was usually p.r.o.nounced like was usually p.r.o.nounced like i i.
Long vowels are usually marked with the "acute accent", as in some varieties of Feanorian script. In Sindarin long vowels in stressed monosyllables are marked with the circ.u.mflex, since they tended in such cases to be specially prolonged; 1 1 so in so in dun dun compared with compared with Dunadan. Dunadan. The use of the circ.u.mflex in other languages such as Adunaic or Dwarvish has no special significance, and is used merely to mark these out as alien tongues (as with the use of The use of the circ.u.mflex in other languages such as Adunaic or Dwarvish has no special significance, and is used merely to mark these out as alien tongues (as with the use of k k).
Final e e is never mute or a mere sign of length as in English. To mark this final is never mute or a mere sign of length as in English. To mark this final e e it is often (but not consistently) written it is often (but not consistently) written e e.
The groups er er, ir ir, ur ur (finally or before a consonant) are not intended to be p.r.o.nounced as in English (finally or before a consonant) are not intended to be p.r.o.nounced as in English fern fern, fir fir, fur fur, but rather as English air air, eer eer, oor oor.
In Quenya ui ui, oi oi, ai ai and and iu iu, eu eu, au au are diphthongs (that is, p.r.o.nounced in one syllable). All other pairs of vowels are dissyllabic. This is often dictated by writing are diphthongs (that is, p.r.o.nounced in one syllable). All other pairs of vowels are dissyllabic. This is often dictated by writing ea ea ( (Ea), eo eo, oe oe.
In Sindarin the diphthongs are written ae ae, ai ai, ei ei, oe oe, ui ui, and au au. Other combinations are not diphthongal. The writing of final au au as as aw aw is in accordance with English custom, but is actually not uncommon in Feanorian spellings. is in accordance with English custom, but is actually not uncommon in Feanorian spellings.
All these diphthongs 2 2 were "falling" diphthongs, that is stressed on the first element, and composed of the simple vowels run together. Thus were "falling" diphthongs, that is stressed on the first element, and composed of the simple vowels run together. Thus ai ai, ei ei, oi oi, ui ui are intended to be p.r.o.nounced respectively as the vowels in English are intended to be p.r.o.nounced respectively as the vowels in English rye rye (not (not ray ray), grey grey, boy boy, ruin ruin; and au au ( (aw) as in loud loud, how how and not as in and not as in laud laud, haw haw.
There is nothing in English closely corresponding to ae ae, oe oe, eu eu; ae ae and and oe oe may be p.r.o.nounced as may be p.r.o.nounced as ai ai, oi oi.
STRESS.
The position of the "accent" or stress is not marked, since in the Eldarin languages concerned its place is determined by the form of the word. In words of two syllables it falls in practically all cases on the first syllable. In longer words it falls on the last syllable but one, where that contains a long vowel, a diphthong, or a vowel followed by two (or more) consonants. Where the last syllable but one contains (as often) a short vowel followed by only one (or no) consonant, the stress falls on the syllable before it, the third from the end. Words of the last form are favoured in the Eldarin languages, especially Quenya.
In the following examples the stressed vowel is marked by a capital letter: isIldur isIldur, Orome Orome, erEssea erEssea, feanor feanor, ancAlima ancAlima, elentari elentari, dEnethor dEnethor, periAnnath periAnnath, ecthElion ecthElion, pelArgir pelArgir, silIvren silIvren. Words of the type elentari elentari "star-queen" seldom occur in Quenya where the vowel is "star-queen" seldom occur in Quenya where the vowel is e e, a a, o o, unless (as in this case) they are compounds; they are commoner with the vowels i i, u u, as andune andune "sunset, west". They do not occur in Sindarin except in compounds. Note that Sindarin "sunset, west". They do not occur in Sindarin except in compounds. Note that Sindarin dh dh, th th, ch ch are single consonants and represent single letters in the original scripts. are single consonants and represent single letters in the original scripts.
NOTE.
In names drawn from other languages than Eldarin the same values for the letters are intended, where not specially described above, except in the case of Dwarvish. In Dwarvish, which did not possess the sounds represented above by th th and and ch ch ( (kh), th th and and kh kh are aspirates, that is are aspirates, that is t t or or k k followed by an followed by an h h, more or less as in backhand backhand, outhouse outhouse.
Where z z occurs the sound intended is that of English occurs the sound intended is that of English z z. gh gh in the Black Speech and Orkish represents a "back spirant" (related to in the Black Speech and Orkish represents a "back spirant" (related to g g as as dh dh to to d d): as in ghash ghash and and agh agh.
The "outer" or Mannish names of the Dwarves have been given Northern forms, but the letter-values are those described.
So also in the case of the personal and place-names of Rohan (where they have not been modernized), except that here ea ea and and eo eo are diphthongs, which may be represented by the are diphthongs, which may be represented by the ea ea of English of English bear bear, and the eo eo of of Theobald Theobald; y y is the modified is the modified u u. The modernized forms are easily recognized and are intended to be p.r.o.nounced as in English. They are mostly place-names: as Dunharrow (for Dunharg Dunharg), except Shadowfax and Wormtongue.
II.
WRITING.
The scripts and letters used in the Third Age were all ultimately of Eldarin origin, and already at that time of great antiquity. They had reached the stage of full alphabetic development, but older modes in which only the consonants were denoted by full letters were still in use.
The alphabets were of two main, and in origin independent, kinds: the Tengwar Tengwar or or Tiw Tiw, here translated as "letters"; and the Certar Certar or or Cirth Cirth, translated as "runes". The Tengwar Tengwar were devised for writing with brush or pen, and the squared forms of inscriptions were in their case derivative from the written forms. The were devised for writing with brush or pen, and the squared forms of inscriptions were in their case derivative from the written forms. The Certar Certar were devised and mostly used only for scratched or incised inscriptions. were devised and mostly used only for scratched or incised inscriptions.
The Tengwar Tengwar were the more ancient; for they had been developed by the Noldor, the kindred of the Eldar most skilled in such matters, long before their exile. The oldest Eldarin letters, the Tengwar of Rumil, were not used in Middle-earth. The later letters, the Tengwar of Feanor, were largely a new invention, though they owed something to the letters of Rumil. They were brought to Middle-earth by the exiled Noldor, and so became known to the Edain and Numenoreans. In the Third Age their use had spread over much the same area as that in which the Common Speech was known. were the more ancient; for they had been developed by the Noldor, the kindred of the Eldar most skilled in such matters, long before their exile. The oldest Eldarin letters, the Tengwar of Rumil, were not used in Middle-earth. The later letters, the Tengwar of Feanor, were largely a new invention, though they owed something to the letters of Rumil. They were brought to Middle-earth by the exiled Noldor, and so became known to the Edain and Numenoreans. In the Third Age their use had spread over much the same area as that in which the Common Speech was known.
The Cirth were devised first in Beleriand by the Sindar, and were long used only for inscribing names and brief memorials upon wood or stone. To that origin they owe their angular shapes, very similar to the runes of our times, though they differed from these in details and were wholly different in arrangement. The Cirth in their older and simpler form spread eastward in the Second Age, and became known to many peoples, to Men and Dwarves, and even to Orcs, all of whom altered them to suit their purposes and according to their skill or lack of it. One such simple form was still used by the Men of Dale, and a similar one by the Rohirrim.
But in Beleriand, before the end of the First Age, the Cirth, partly under the influence of the Tengwar of the Noldor, were rearranged and further developed. Their richest and most ordered form was known as the Alphabet of Daeron, since in Elvish tradition it was said to have been devised by Daeron, the minstrel and loremaster of King Thingol of Doriath. Among the Eldar the Alphabet of Daeron did not develop true cursive forms, since for writing the Elves adopted the Feanorian letters. The Elves of the West indeed for the most part gave up the use of runes altogether. In the country of Eregion, however, the Alphabet of Daeron was maintained in use and pa.s.sed thence to Moria, where it became the alphabet most favoured by the Dwarves. It remained ever after in use among them and pa.s.sed with them to the North. Hence in later times it was often called Angerthas Moria Angerthas Moria or the Long Rune-rows of Moria. As with their speech the Dwarves made use of such scripts as were current and many wrote the Feanorian letters skilfully; but for their own tongue they adhered to the Cirth, and developed written pen-forms from them. or the Long Rune-rows of Moria. As with their speech the Dwarves made use of such scripts as were current and many wrote the Feanorian letters skilfully; but for their own tongue they adhered to the Cirth, and developed written pen-forms from them.
(i) THE FeANORIAN LETTERS.
The table shows, in formal book-hand shape, all the letters that were commonly used in the West-lands in the Third Age. The arrangement is the one most usual at the time, and the one in which the letters were then usually recited by name.
This script was not in origin an "alphabet": that is, a haphazard series of letters, each with an independent value of its own, recited in a traditional order that has no reference either to their shapes or to their functions. 1 1 It was, rather, a system of consonantal signs, of similar shapes and style, which could be adapted at choice or convenience to represent the consonants of languages observed (or devised) by the Eldar. None of the letters had in itself a fixed value; but certain relations between them were gradually recognized. It was, rather, a system of consonantal signs, of similar shapes and style, which could be adapted at choice or convenience to represent the consonants of languages observed (or devised) by the Eldar. None of the letters had in itself a fixed value; but certain relations between them were gradually recognized.
THE TENGWAR.
The system contained twenty-four primary letters, 124, arranged in four temar temar (series), each of which had six (series), each of which had six tyeller tyeller(grades). There were also "additional letters", of which 2536 are examples. Of these 27 and 29 are the only strictly independent letters; the remainder are modifications of other letters. There was also a number of tehtar tehtar (signs) of varied uses. These do not appear in the table. (signs) of varied uses. These do not appear in the table. 1 1 The primary letters primary letters were each formed of a were each formed of a telco telco (stem) and a (stem) and a luva luva (bow). The forms seen in 14 were regarded as normal. The stem could be raised, as in 916; or reduced, as in 1724. The bow could be open, as in Series I and III; or closed, as in II and IV; and in either case it could be doubled, as e.g. in 58. (bow). The forms seen in 14 were regarded as normal. The stem could be raised, as in 916; or reduced, as in 1724. The bow could be open, as in Series I and III; or closed, as in II and IV; and in either case it could be doubled, as e.g. in 58.
The theoretic freedom of application had in the Third Age been modified by custom to this extent that Series I was generally applied to the dental or t t-series (tincotema), and II to the l.a.b.i.als or p p-series (parmatema). The application of Series III and IV varied according to the requirements of different languages.
In languages like the Westron, which made much use of consonants 2 2 such as our such as our ch ch, j j, sh sh, Series III was usually applied to these; in which case Series IV was applied to the normal k k-series (calmatema). In Quenya, which possessed besides the calmatema calmatema both a palatal series ( both a palatal series (tyelpetema) and a l.a.b.i.alized series (quessetema), the palatals were represented by a Feanorian diacritic denoting "following y y" (usually two underposed dots), while Series IV was a kw kw-series.
Within these general applications the following relations were also commonly observed. The normal letters, Grade 1, were applied to the "voiceless stops": t t, p p, k k, etc. The doubling of the bow indicated the addition of "voice": thus if 1, 2, 3, 4=t, p p, ch ch, k k (or (or t t, p p, k k, kw kw) then 5, 6, 7, 8=d, b b, j j, g g (or (or d d, b b, g g, gw gw). The raising of the stem indicated the opening of the consonant to a "spirant": thus a.s.suming the above values for Grade 1, Grade 3 (912)=th, f f, sh sh, ch ch (or (or th th, f f, kh kh, khw khw/hw), and Grade 4 (1316)= dh dh, v v, zh zh, gh gh (or (or dh dh, v v, gh gh, ghw ghw/w).
The original Feanorian system also possessed a grade with extended stems, both above and below the line. These usually represented aspirated consonants (e.g. t t+h, p p+h, k k+h), but might represent other consonantal variations required. They were not needed in the languages of the Third Age that used this script; but the extended forms were much used as variants (more clearly distinguished from Grade 1) of Grades 3 and 4.
Grade 5 (1720) was usually applied to the nasal consonants: thus 17 and 18 were the most common signs for n n and and m. m. According to the principle observed above, Grade 6 should then have represented the voiceless nasals; but since such sounds (exemplified by Welsh According to the principle observed above, Grade 6 should then have represented the voiceless nasals; but since such sounds (exemplified by Welsh nh nh or ancient English or ancient English hn hn) were of very rare occurrence in the languages concerned, Grade 6 (2124) was most often used for the weakest or "semi-vocalic" consonants of each series. It consisted of the smallest and simplest shapes among the primary letters. Thus 21 was often used for a weak (untrilled) r r, originally occurring in Quenya and regarded in the system of that language as the weakest consonant of the tincotema tincotema; 22 was widely used for w w; where Series III was used as a palatal series 23 was commonly used as consonantal y y. 1 1 Since some of the consonants of Grade 4 tended to become weaker in p.r.o.nunciation, and to approach or to merge with those of Grade 6 (as described above), many of the latter ceased to have a clear function in the Eldarin languages; and it was from these letters that the letters expressing vowels were largely derived.
NOTE.
The standard spelling of Quenya diverged from the applications of the letters above described. Grade 2 was used for nd nd, mb mb, ng ng, ngw ngw, all of which were frequent, since b b, g g, gw gw only appeared in these combinations, while for only appeared in these combinations, while for rd rd, ld ld the special letters 26, 28 were used. (For the special letters 26, 28 were used. (For lv lv, not for lw lw, many speakers, especially Elves, used lb lb: this was written with 27+6, since lmb lmb could not occur.) Similarly, Grade 4 was used for the extremely frequent combinations could not occur.) Similarly, Grade 4 was used for the extremely frequent combinations nt nt, mp mp, nk nk, nqu nqu, since Quenya did not possess dh dh, gh gh, ghw ghw, and for v v used letter 22. See the Quenya letter-names pp. used letter 22. See the Quenya letter-names pp. 1474 14745.
The additional letters. No. 27 was universally used for No. 27 was universally used for l l. No. 25 (in origin a modification of 21) was used for "full" trilled r r. Nos. 26, 28 were modifications of these. They were frequently used for voiceless r r ( (rh) and l l ( (lh) respectively. But in Quenya they were used for rd rd and and ld. ld. 29 represented 29 represented s s, and 31 (with doubled curl) z z in those languages that required it. The inverted forms, 30 and 32, though available for use as separate signs, were mostly used as mere variants of 29 and 31, according to the convenience of writing, e.g. they were much used when accompanied by superimposed in those languages that required it. The inverted forms, 30 and 32, though available for use as separate signs, were mostly used as mere variants of 29 and 31, according to the convenience of writing, e.g. they were much used when accompanied by superimposed tehtar tehtar.
No. 33 was in origin a variation representing some (weaker) variety of 11; its most frequent use in the Third Age was h. h. 34 was mostly used (if at all) for voiceless 34 was mostly used (if at all) for voiceless w w ( (hw). 35 and 36 were, when used as consonants, mostly applied to y y and and w w respectively. respectively.
The vowels were in many modes represented by were in many modes represented by tehtar tehtar, usually set above a consonantal letter. In languages such as Quenya, in which most words ended in a vowel, the tehta tehta was placed above the preceding consonant; in those such as Sindarin, in which most words ended in a consonant, it was placed above the following consonant. When there was no consonant present in the required position, the was placed above the preceding consonant; in those such as Sindarin, in which most words ended in a consonant, it was placed above the following consonant. When there was no consonant present in the required position, the tehta tehta was placed above the "short carrier", of which a common form was like an undotted i. The actual was placed above the "short carrier", of which a common form was like an undotted i. The actual tehtar tehtar used in different languages for vowel-signs were numerous. The commonest, usually applied to (varieties of) used in different languages for vowel-signs were numerous. The commonest, usually applied to (varieties of) e e, i i, a a, o o, u u, are exhibited in the examples given. The three dots, most usual in formal writing for a a, were variously written in quicker styles, a form like a circ.u.mflex being often employed. 1 1 The single dot and the "acute accent" were frequently used for The single dot and the "acute accent" were frequently used for i i and and e e (but in some modes for (but in some modes for e e and and i i). The curls were used for o o and and u u. In the Ring-inscription the curl open to the right is used for u u; but on the t.i.tle-page this stands for o o, and the curl open to the left for u u. The curl to the right was favoured, and the application depended on the language concerned: in the Black Speech o o was rare. was rare.
Long vowels were usually represented by placing the tehta tehta on the "long carrier", of which a common form was like an undotted on the "long carrier", of which a common form was like an undotted j j. But for the same purpose the tehtar tehtar could be doubled. This was, however, only frequently done with the curls, and sometimes with the "accent". Two dots was more often used as a sign for following could be doubled. This was, however, only frequently done with the curls, and sometimes with the "accent". Two dots was more often used as a sign for following y y.
The West-gate inscription ill.u.s.trates a mode of "full writing" with the vowels represented by separate letters. All the vocalic letters used in Sindarin are shown. The use of No. 30 as a sign for vocalic y y may be noted; also the expression of diphthongs by placing the may be noted; also the expression of diphthongs by placing the tehta tehta for following for following y y above the vowel-letter. The sign for following above the vowel-letter. The sign for following w w (required for the expression of (required for the expression of au au, aw aw) was in this mode the u u-curl or a modification of it ~. But the diphthongs were often written out in full, as in the transcription. In this mode length of vowel was usually indicated by the "acute accent", called in that case andaith andaith "long mark". "long mark".
There were beside the tehtar tehtar already mentioned a number of others, chiefly used to abbreviate the writing, especially by expressing frequent consonant combinations without writing them out in full. Among these, a bar (or a sign like a Spanish already mentioned a number of others, chiefly used to abbreviate the writing, especially by expressing frequent consonant combinations without writing them out in full. Among these, a bar (or a sign like a Spanish tilde tilde) placed above a consonant was often used to indicate that it was preceded by the nasal of the same series (as in nt nt, mp mp, or nk nk); a similar sign placed below was, however, mainly used to show that the consonant was long or doubled. A downward hook attached to the bow (as in hobbits hobbits, the last word on the t.i.tle-page) was used to indicate a following s s, especially in the combinations ts ts, ps ps, ks ks ( (x), that were favoured in Quenya.
There was of course no "mode" for the representation of English. One adequate phonetically could be devised from the Feanorian system. The brief example on the t.i.tle-page does not attempt to exhibit this. It is rather an example of what a man of Gondor might have produced, hesitating between the values of the letters familiar in his "mode" and the traditional spelling of English. It may be noted that a dot below (one of the uses of which was to represent weak obscured vowels) is here employed in the representation of unstressed and and, but is also used in here here for silent final for silent final e e; the the, of of, and of the of the are expressed by abbreviations (extended are expressed by abbreviations (extended dh dh, extended v v, and the latter with an under-stroke).
The names names of the letters of the letters. In all modes each letter and sign had a name; but these names were devised to fit or describe the phonetic uses in each particular mode. It was, however, often felt desirable, especially in describing the uses of the letters in other modes, to have a name for each letter in itself as a shape. For this purpose the Quenya "full names" were commonly employed, even where they referred to uses peculiar to Quenya. Each "full name" was an actual word in Quenya that contained the letter in question. Where possible it was the first sound of the word; but where the sound or the combination expressed did not occur initially it followed immediately after an initial vowel. The names of the letters in the table were (1) tinco tinco metal, metal, parma parma book, book, calma calma lamp, lamp, quesse quesse feather; (2) feather; (2) ando ando gate, gate, umbar umbar fate, fate, anga anga iron, iron, ungwe ungwe spider"s web; (3) spider"s web; (3) thule thule ( (sule) spirit, formen formen north, north, harma harma treasure (or treasure (or aha aha rage), rage), hwesta hwesta breeze; (4) breeze; (4) anto anto mouth, mouth, ampa ampa hook, hook, anca anca jaws, jaws, unque unque a hollow; (5) a hollow; (5) numen numen west, west, malta malta gold, gold, noldo noldo (older (older ngoldo ngoldo) one of the kindred of the Noldor, nwalme nwalme (older (older ngwalme ngwalme) torment; (6) ore ore heart (inner mind), heart (inner mind), vala vala angelic power, angelic power, anna anna gift, gift, vilya vilya air, sky (older air, sky (older wilya wilya); romen romen east, east, arda arda region, region, lambe lambe tongue, tongue, alda alda tree; tree; silme silme starlight, starlight, silme nuquerna silme nuquerna ( (s reversed), reversed), are are sunlight (or sunlight (or esse esse name), name), are nuquerna are nuquerna; hyarmen hyarmen south, south, hwesta sindarinwa hwesta sindarinwa, yanta yanta bridge, bridge, ure ure heat. Where there are variants this is due to the names being given before certain changes affected Quenya as spoken by the Exiles. Thus No. 11 was called heat. Where there are variants this is due to the names being given before certain changes affected Quenya as spoken by the Exiles. Thus No. 11 was called harma harma when it represented the spirant when it represented the spirant ch ch in all positions, but when this sound became breath in all positions, but when this sound became breath h h initially initially 1 1 (though remaining medially) the name (though remaining medially) the name aha aha was devised. was devised. are are was originally was originally aze aze, but when this z z became merged with 21, the sign was in Quenya used for the very frequent became merged with 21, the sign was in Quenya used for the very frequent ss ss of that language, and the name of that language, and the name esse esse was given to it. was given to it. hwesta sindarinwa hwesta sindarinwa or "Grey-elven or "Grey-elven hw hw" was so called because in Quenya 12 had the sound of hw hw, and distinct signs for chw chw and and hw hw were not required. The names of the letters most widely known and used were 17 were not required. The names of the letters most widely known and used were 17 n n, 33 hy hy, 25 r r, 10 f f: numen numen, hyarmen hyarmen, romen romen, formen formen=west, south, east, north (cf. Sindarin dun dun or or annun annun, harad harad, rhun rhun or or amrun amrun, forod forod). These letters commonly indicated the points W, S, E, N even in languages that used quite different terms. They were, in the West-lands, named in this order, beginning with and facing west; hyarmen hyarmen and and formen formen indeed meant left-hand region and right-hand region (the opposite to the arrangement in many Mannish languages). indeed meant left-hand region and right-hand region (the opposite to the arrangement in many Mannish languages).
(ii) THE CIRTH.
The Certhas Daeron Certhas Daeron was originally devised to represent the sounds of Sindarin only. The oldest was originally devised to represent the sounds of Sindarin only. The oldest cirth cirth were Nos. 1, 2, 5, 6; 8, 9, 12; 18, 19, 22; 29, 31; 35, 36; 39, 42, 46, 50; and a were Nos. 1, 2, 5, 6; 8, 9, 12; 18, 19, 22; 29, 31; 35, 36; 39, 42, 46, 50; and a certh certh varying between 13 and 15. The a.s.signment of values was unsystematic. Nos. 39, 42, 46, 50 were vowels and remained so in all later developments. Nos. 13, 15 were used for varying between 13 and 15. The a.s.signment of values was unsystematic. Nos. 39, 42, 46, 50 were vowels and remained so in all later developments. Nos. 13, 15 were used for h h or or s s, according as 35 was used for s s or or h. h. This tendency to hesitate in the a.s.signment of values for This tendency to hesitate in the a.s.signment of values for s s and and h h continued in later arrangements. In those characters that consisted of a "stem" and a "branch", 1 31, the attachment of the branch was, if on one side only, usually made on the right side. The reverse was not infrequent, but had no phonetic significance. continued in later arrangements. In those characters that consisted of a "stem" and a "branch", 1 31, the attachment of the branch was, if on one side only, usually made on the right side. The reverse was not infrequent, but had no phonetic significance.
The extension and elaboration of this certhas certhas was called in its older form the was called in its older form the Angerthas Daeron Angerthas Daeron, since the additions to the old cirth cirth and their reorganization was attributed to Daeron. The princ.i.p.al additions, however, the introductions of two new series, 1317, and 2328, were actually most probably inventions of the Noldor of Eregion, since they were used for the representation of sounds not found in Sindarin. and their reorganization was attributed to Daeron. The princ.i.p.al additions, however, the introductions of two new series, 1317, and 2328, were actually most probably inventions of the Noldor of Eregion, since they were used for the representation of sounds not found in Sindarin.
In the rearrangement of the Angerthas Angerthas the following principles are observable (evidently inspired by the Feanorian system): (1) adding a stroke to a branch added "voice"; (2) reversing the the following principles are observable (evidently inspired by the Feanorian system): (1) adding a stroke to a branch added "voice"; (2) reversing the certh certh indicated opening to a "spirant"; (3) placing the branch on both sides of the stem added voice and nasality. These principles were regularly carried out, except in one point. For (archaic) Sindarin a sign for a spirant indicated opening to a "spirant"; (3) placing the branch on both sides of the stem added voice and nasality. These principles were regularly carried out, except in one point. For (archaic) Sindarin a sign for a spirant m m (or nasal (or nasal v v) was required, and since this could best be provided by a reversal of the sign for m m, the reversible No. 6 was given the value m m, but No. 5 was given the value hw hw.
No. 36, the theoretic value of which was z z, was used, in spelling Sindarin or Quenya, for ss ss: cf. Feanorian 31. No. 39 was used for either i i or or y y (consonant); 34, 35 were used indifferently for (consonant); 34, 35 were used indifferently for s s; and 38 was used for the frequent sequence nd nd, though it was not clearly related in shape to the dentals.
In the Table of Values those on the left are, when separated by --, the values of the older Angerthas Angerthas. Those on the right are the values of the Dwarvish Angerthas Moria Angerthas Moria. 1 1 The Dwarves of Moria, as can be seen, introduced a number of unsystematic changes in value, as well as certain new The Dwarves of Moria, as can be seen, introduced a number of unsystematic changes in value, as well as certain new cirth cirth:* 37, 40, 41, 53, 55, 56. The dislocation in values was due mainly to two causes: (1) the alteration in the values of 34, 35, 54 respectively to h h, " " (the clear or glottal beginning of a word with an initial vowel that appeared in Khuzdul), and (the clear or glottal beginning of a word with an initial vowel that appeared in Khuzdul), and s s; (2) the abandonment of the Nos. 14, 16 for which the Dwarves subst.i.tuted 29, 30. The consequent use of 12 for r r, the invention of 53 for n n (and its confusion with 22); the use of 17 as (and its confusion with 22); the use of 17 as z z, to go with 54 in its value s s, and the consequent use of 36 as and the new and the new certh certh 37 for 37 for ng ng may also be observed. The new 55, 56 were in origin a halved form of 46, and were used for vowels like those heard in English may also be observed. The new 55, 56 were in origin a halved form of 46, and were used for vowels like those heard in English b.u.t.ter b.u.t.ter, which were frequent in Dwarvish and in the Westron. When weak or evanescent they were often reduced to a mere stroke without a stem. This Angerthas Moria Angerthas Moria is represented in the tomb-inscription. is represented in the tomb-inscription.
The Dwarves of Erebor used a further modification of this system, known as the mode of Erebor, and exemplified in the Book of Mazarbul. Its chief characteristics were: the use of 43 as z z; of 17 as ks ks ( (x); and the invention of two new cirth cirth, 57, 58 for ps ps and and ts ts. They also reintroduced 14, 16 for the values j j, zh zh; but used 29, 30 for g g, gh gh, or as mere variants of 19, 21. These peculiarities are not included in the table, except for the special Ereborian cirth cirth, 57, 58.
THE ANGERTHAS.
THE ANGERTHAS.
Values
APPENDIX F.
I.
THE LANGUAGES AND PEOPLES OF THE THIRD AGE.
The language represented in this history by English was the Westron Westron or "Common Speech" of the West-lands of Middle-earth in the Third Age. In the course of that age it had become the native language of nearly all the speaking-peoples (save the Elves) who dwelt within the bounds of the old kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor; that is along all the coasts from Umbar northward to the Bay of Forochel, and inland as far as the Misty Mountains and the Ephel Duath. It had also spread north up the Anduin, occupying the lands west of the River and east of the mountains as far as the Gladden Fields. or "Common Speech" of the West-lands of Middle-earth in the Third Age. In the course of that age it had become the native language of nearly all the speaking-peoples (save the Elves) who dwelt within the bounds of the old kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor; that is along all the coasts from Umbar northward to the Bay of Forochel, and inland as far as the Misty Mountains and the Ephel Duath. It had also spread north up the Anduin, occupying the lands west of the River and east of the mountains as far as the Gladden Fields.
At the time of the War of the Ring at the end of the age these were still its bounds as a native tongue, though large parts of Eriador were now deserted, and few Men dwelt on the sh.o.r.es of the Anduin between the Gladden and Rauros.
A few of the ancient Wild Men still lurked in the Druadan Forest in Anorien; and in the hills of Dunland a remnant lingered of an old people, the former inhabitants of much of Gondor. These clung to their own languages; while in the plains of Rohan there dwelt now a Northern people, the Rohirrim, who had come into that land some five hundred years earlier. But the Westron was used as a second language of intercourse by all those who still retained a speech of their own, even by the Elves, not only in Arnor and Gondor but throughout the vales of Anduin, and eastward to the further eaves of Mirkwood. Even among the Wild Men and the Dunlendings who shunned other folk there were some that could speak it, though brokenly.
OF THE ELVES.
The Elves far back in the Elder Days became divided into two main branches: the West-elves (the Eldar Eldar) and the East-elves. Of the latter kind were most of the Elven-folk of Mirkwood and Lorien; but their languages do not appear in this history, in which all the Elvish names and words are of Eldarin Eldarin form. form. 1 1 Of the Eldarin Eldarin tongues two are found in this book: the High-elven or tongues two are found in this book: the High-elven or Quenya Quenya, and the Grey-elven or Sindarin. Sindarin. The High-elven was an ancient tongue of Eldamar beyond the Sea, the first to be recorded in writing. It was no longer a birth-tongue, but had become, as it were, an "Elven-latin", still used for ceremony, and for high matters of lore and song, by the High Elves, who had returned in exile to Middle-earth at the end of the First Age. The High-elven was an ancient tongue of Eldamar beyond the Sea, the first to be recorded in writing. It was no longer a birth-tongue, but had become, as it were, an "Elven-latin", still used for ceremony, and for high matters of lore and song, by the High Elves, who had returned in exile to Middle-earth at the end of the First Age.
The Grey-elven was in origin akin to Quenya Quenya; for it was the language of those Eldar who, coming to the sh.o.r.es of Middle-earth, had not pa.s.sed over the Sea but had lingered on the coasts in the country of Beleriand. There Thingol Greycloak of Doriath was their king, and in the long twilight their tongue had changed with the changefulness of mortal lands and had become far estranged from the speech of the Eldar from beyond the Sea.
The Exiles, dwelling among the more numerous Grey-elves, had adopted the Sindarin Sindarin for daily use; and hence it was the tongue of all those Elves and Elf-lords that appear in this history. For these were all of Eldarin race, even where the folk that they ruled were of the lesser kindreds. n.o.blest of all was the Lady Galadriel of the royal house of Finarfin and sister of Finrod Felagund, King of Nargothrond. In the hearts of the Exiles the yearning for the Sea was an unquiet never to be stilled; in the hearts of the Grey-elves it slumbered, but once awakened it could not be appeased. for daily use; and hence it was the tongue of all those Elves and Elf-lords that appear in this history. For these were all of Eldarin race, even where the folk that they ruled were of the lesser kindreds. n.o.blest of all was the Lady Galadriel of the royal house of Finarfin and sister of Finrod Felagund, King of Nargothrond. In the hearts of the Exiles the yearning for the Sea was an unquiet never to be stilled; in the hearts of the Grey-elves it slumbered, but once awakened it could not be appeased.
OF MEN.
The Westron Westron was a Mannish speech, though enriched and softened under Elvish influence. It was in origin the language of those whom the Eldar called the was a Mannish speech, though enriched and softened under Elvish influence. It was in origin the language of those whom the Eldar called the Atani Atani or or Edain Edain, "Fathers of Men", being especially the people of the Three Houses of the Elf-friends who came west into Beleriand in the First Age, and aided the Eldar in the War of the Great Jewels against the Dark Power of the North.
After the overthrow of the Dark Power, in which Beleriand was for the most part drowned or broken, it was granted as a reward to the Elf-friends that they also, as the Eldar, might pa.s.s west over Sea. But since the Undying Realm was forbidden to them, a great isle was set apart for them, most westerly of all mortal lands. The name of that isle was Numenor Numenor (Westernesse). Most of the Elf-friends, therefore, departed and dwelt in Numenor, and there they became great and powerful, mariners of renown and lords of many ships. They were fair of face and tall, and the span of their lives was thrice that of the Men of Middle-earth. These were the Numenoreans, the Kings of Men, whom the Elves called the (Westernesse). Most of the Elf-friends, therefore, departed and dwelt in Numenor, and there they became great and powerful, mariners of renown and lords of many ships. They were fair of face and tall, and the span of their lives was thrice that of the Men of Middle-earth. These were the Numenoreans, the Kings of Men, whom the Elves called the Dunedain. Dunedain.
The Dunedain Dunedain alone of all races of Men knew and spoke an Elvish tongue; for their forefathers had learned the Sindarin tongue, and this they handed on to their children as a matter of lore, changing little with the pa.s.sing of the years. And their men of wisdom learned also the High-elven Quenya and esteemed it above all other tongues, and in it they made names for many places of fame and reverence, and for many men of royalty and great renown. alone of all races of Men knew and spoke an Elvish tongue; for their forefathers had learned the Sindarin tongue, and this they handed on to their children as a matter of lore, changing little with the pa.s.sing of the years. And their men of wisdom learned also the High-elven Quenya and esteemed it above all other tongues, and in it they made names for many places of fame and reverence, and for many men of royalty and great renown. 1 1 But the native speech of the Numenoreans remained for the most part their ancestral Mannish tongue, the Adunaic, and to this in the latter days of their pride their kings and lords returned, abandoning the Elven-speech, save only those few that held still to their ancient friendship with the Eldar. In the years of their power the Numenoreans had maintained many forts and havens upon the western coasts of Middle-earth for the help of their ships; and one of the chief of these was at Pelargir near the Mouths of Anduin. There Adunaic was spoken, and mingled with many words of the languages of lesser men it became a Common Speech that spread thence along the coasts among all that had dealings with Westernesse.
After the Downfall of Numenor, Elendil led the survivors of the Elf-friends back to the North-western sh.o.r.es of Middle-earth. There many already dwelt who were in whole or part of Numenorean blood; but few of them remembered the Elvish speech. All told the Dunedain were thus from the beginning far fewer in number than the lesser men among whom they dwelt and whom they ruled, being lords of long life and great power and wisdom. They used therefore the Common Speech in their dealing with other folk and in the government of their wide realms; but they enlarged the language and enriched it with many words drawn from elven-tongues.
In the days of the Numenorean kings this enn.o.bled Westron speech spread far and wide, even among their enemies; and it became used more and more by the Dunedain themselves, so that at the time of the War of the Ring the elven-tongue was known to only a small part of the peoples of Gondor, and spoken daily by fewer. These dwelt mostly in Minas Tirith and the townlands adjacent, and in the land of the tributary princes of Dol Amroth. Yet the names of nearly all places and persons in the realm of Gondor were of Elvish form and meaning. A few were of forgotten origin, and descended doubtless from the days before the ships of the Numenoreans sailed the Sea; among these were Umbar Umbar, Arnach Arnach and and Erech Erech; and the mountain-names Eilenach Eilenach and and Rimmon Rimmon. Forlong Forlong was also a name of the same sort. was also a name of the same sort.
Most of the Men of the northern regions of the West-lands were descended from the Edain Edain of the First Age, or from their close kin. Their languages were, therefore, related to the Adunaic, and some still preserved a likeness to the Common Speech. Of this kind were the peoples of the upper vales of Anduin: the Beornings, and the Woodmen of Western Mirkwood; and further north and east the Men of the Long Lake and of Dale. From the lands between the Gladden and the Carrock came the folk that were known in Gondor as the Rohirrim, Masters of Horses. They still spoke their ancestral tongue, and gave new names in it to nearly all the places in their new country; and they called themselves the Eorlings, or the Men of the Riddermark. But the lords of that people used the Common Speech freely, and spoke it n.o.bly after the manner of their allies in Gondor; for in Gondor whence it came the Westron kept still a more gracious and antique style. of the First Age, or from their close kin. Their languages were, therefore, related to the Adunaic, and some still preserved a likeness to the Common Speech. Of this kind were the peoples of the upper vales of Anduin: the Beornings, and the Woodmen of Western Mirkwood; and further north and east the Men of the Long Lake and of Dale. From the lands between the Gladden and the Carrock came the folk that were known in Gondor as the Rohirrim, Masters of Horses. They still spoke their ancestral tongue, and gave new names in it to nearly all the places in their new country; and they called themselves the Eorlings, or the Men of the Riddermark. But the lords of that people used the Common Speech freely, and spoke it n.o.bly after the manner of their allies in Gondor; for in Gondor whence it came the Westron kept still a more gracious and antique style.
Wholly alien was the speech of the Wild Men of Druadan Forest. Alien, too, or only remotely akin, was the language of the Dunlendings. These were a remnant of the peoples that had dwelt in the vales of the White Mountains in ages past. The Dead Men of Dunharrow were of their kin. But in the Dark Years others had removed to the southern dales of the Misty Mountains; and thence some had pa.s.sed into the empty lands as far north as the Barrow-downs. From them came the Men of Bree; but long before these had become subjects of the North Kingdom of Arnor and had taken up the Westron tongue. Only in Dunland did Men of this race hold to their old speech and manners: a secret folk, unfriendly to the Dunedain, hating the Rohirrim.
Of their language nothing appears in this book, save the name Forgoil Forgoil which they gave to the Rohirrim (meaning Strawheads, it is said). which they gave to the Rohirrim (meaning Strawheads, it is said). Dunland Dunland and and Dunlending Dunlending are the names that the Rohirrim gave to them, because they were swarthy and dark-haired; there is thus no connexion between the word are the names that the Rohirrim gave to them, because they were swarthy and dark-haired; there is thus no connexion between the word dunn dunn in these names and the Grey-elven word in these names and the Grey-elven word Dun Dun "west". "west".
OF HOBBITS.
The Hobbits of the Shire and of Bree had at this time, for probably a thousand years, adopted the Common Speech. They used it in their own manner freely and carelessly; though the more learned among them had still at their command a more formal language when occasion required.
There is no record of any language peculiar to Hobbits. In ancient days they seem always to have used the languages of Men near whom, or among whom, they lived. Thus they quickly adopted the Common Speech after they entered Eriador, and by the time of their settlement at Bree they had already begun to forget their former tongue. This was evidently a Mannish language of the upper Anduin, akin to that of the Rohirrim; though the southern Stoors appear to have adopted a language related to Dunlendish before they came north to the Shire. 1 1 Of these things in the time of Frodo there were still some traces left in local words and names, many of which closely resembled those found in Dale or in Rohan. Most notable were the names of days, months, and seasons; several other words of the same sort (such as mathom mathom and and smial smial) were also still in common use, while more were preserved in the place-names of Bree and the Shire. The personal names of the Hobbits were also peculiar and many had come down from ancient days.
Hobbit was the name usually applied by the Shire-folk to all their kind. Men called them was the name usually applied by the Shire-folk to all their kind. Men called them Halflings Halflings and the Elves and the Elves Periannath. Periannath. The origin of the word The origin of the word hobbit hobbit was by most forgotten. It seems, however, to have been at first a name given to the Harfoots by the Fallohides and Stoors, and to be a worn-down form of a word preserved more fully in Rohan: was by most forgotten. It seems, however, to have been at first a name given to the Harfoots by the Fallohides and Stoors, and to be a worn-down form of a word preserved more fully in Rohan: holbytla holbytla "hole-builder". "hole-builder".
OF OTHER RACES.
Ents. The most ancient people surviving in the Third Age were the The most ancient people surviving in the Third Age were the Onodrim Onodrim or or Enyd. Ent Enyd. Ent was the form of their name in the language of Rohan. They were known to the Eldar in ancient days, and to the Eldar indeed the Ents ascribed not their own language but the desire for speech. The language that they had made was unlike all others: slow, sonorous, agglomerated, repet.i.tive, indeed long-winded; formed of a multiplicity of vowel-shades and distinctions of tone and quality which even the lore-masters of the Eldar had not attempted to represent in writing. They used it only among themselves; but they had no need to keep it secret, for no others could learn it. was the form of their name in the language of Rohan. They were known to the Eldar in ancient days, and to the Eldar indeed the Ents ascribed not their own language but the desire for speech. The language that they had made was unlike all others: slow, sonorous, agglomerated, repet.i.tive, indeed long-winded; formed of a multiplicity of vowel-shades and distinctions of tone and quality which even the lore-masters of the Eldar had not attempted to represent in writing. They used it only among themselves; but they had no need to keep it secret, for no others could learn it.
Ents were, however, themselves skilled in tongues, learning them swiftly and never forgetting them. But they preferred the languages of the Eldar, and loved best the ancient High-elven tongue. The strange words and names that the Hobbits record as used by Treebeard and other Ents are thus Elvish, or fragments of Elf-speech strung together in Ent-fashion. 1 1 Some are Quenya: as Some are Quenya: as Taurelilomea-tumbalemorna Tumbaletaurea Lomeanor Taurelilomea-tumbalemorna Tumbaletaurea Lomeanor, which may be rendered "Forestmanyshadowed-deepvalleyblack Deepvalleyforested Gloomyland", and by which Treebeard meant, more or less: "there is a black shadow in the deep dales of the forest". Some are Sindarin: as Fangorn Fangorn "beard-(of)-tree", or "beard-(of)-tree", or Fimbrethil Fimbrethil "slender-beech". "slender-beech".
Orcs and the Black Speech. Orc Orc is the form of the name that other races had for this foul people as it was in the language of Rohan. In Sindarin it was is the form of the name that other races had for this foul people as it was in the language of Rohan. In Sindarin it was orch. orch. Related, no doubt, was the word Related, no doubt, was the word uruk uruk of the Black Speech, though this was applied as a rule only to the great soldier-orcs that at this time issued from Mordor and Isengard. The lesser kinds were called, especially by the Urukhai, of the Black Speech, though this was applied as a rule only to the great soldier-orcs that at this time issued from Mordor and Isengard. The lesser kinds were called, especially by the Urukhai, snaga snaga "slave". "slave".
The Orcs were first bred by the Dark Power of the North in the Elder Days. It is said that they had no language of their own, but took what they could of other tongues and perverted it to their own liking; yet they made only brutal jargons, scarcely sufficient even for their own needs, unless it were for curses and abuse. And these creatures, being filled with malice, hating even their own kind, quickly developed as many barbarous dialects as there were groups or settlements of their race, so that their Orkish speech was of little use to them in intercourse between different tribes.
So it was that in the Third Age Orcs used for communication between breed and breed the Westron tongue; and many indeed of the older tribes, such as those that still lingered in the North and in the Misty Mountains, had long used the Westron as their native language, though in such a fashion as to make it hardly less unlovely than Orkish. In this jargon tark tark, "man of Gondor", was a debased form of tarkil tarkil, a Quenya word used in Westron for one of Numenorean descent; see p. 1185 1185.