Our own country, which in many other lines has led the world in its mechanical skill and enterprise, did not have a single army dirigible till as late as 1908, when it gave out a contract for an airship which was built by Captain Thomas S. Baldwin. The motor was designed and built by a young mechanic in Hammondsport, N. Y., who for several years had been manufacturing motors for automobiles. His name was Glenn Curtiss and he afterward became one of the world"s most famous aviators.
United States Army Dirigible No. 1 was long and cylindrical, pointed at both ends, and covered with j.a.panese silk, vulcanized with rubber. The water-cooled Curtiss motor was a 20 horse power, and the wooden propeller was of the "tractor" type, placed in the front of the car.
Germany, while America and England stood idle, had been rapidly forging ahead. By 1908 Count von Zeppelin had constructed his third and fourth models, and his public demonstrations had aroused the whole German people to unbounded enthusiasm. The Crown Prince made a trip in Zeppelin No. 3 and its originator was decorated with the Order of the Black Eagle. The German a.s.sociation for an Aerial Fleet was formed, and within a short time over a million dollars had been contributed by the people for the purpose of building dirigibles.
Zeppelin No. 4 was destroyed by an accident, but Zeppelin No. 3 was recalled into the national service and in 1909 given the official t.i.tle of _S.M.S. Zeppelin I_. From this time on dirigible construction in Germany went forward with the greatest speed. Two other names became prominent in the enterprise: those of Major von Pa.r.s.eval and Major von Gross. The "Pa.r.s.eval" design resembled more the French, for it was covered with "Continental fabric," was long and cylindrical, rounded at the front and pointed at the stern, with a large internal air ballonet.
The car was suspended from two steel cables or trolleys, which it could slide along, altering its position and the "balance" of the whole airship.
The "Gross" type of airship resembled the _Lebaudy_ and the _Patrie_, with its boat-shaped car hung from a steel platform attached to the bottom of the envelope.
Out of this brief story of the development of the early airship models of all the nations, we can, if we look carefully, see certain definite types of dirigibles emerging. The experimenters had to solve this problem: What shall we do when owing to loss of gas the balloon envelope begins to get flabby? For of course a flabby, partially filled envelope would flop from side to side, destroying the balance of the airship and checking its speed.
[Ill.u.s.tration: BALDWIN U. S. "DIRIGIBLE NO. 1"]
The German inventors settled the problem by making the envelope _rigid_, either with a solid covering or with a covering of fabric stretched over an inner framework. Thus the _rigid type_ of airship was evolved.
The French inventors solved the same problem by placing inside the envelope a large _empty_ bag of fabric, into which air could be pumped when necessary to fill the balloon out and hold the envelope firm. The air could not be pumped directly into the envelope itself as it would produce an explosive mixture with the gas already there. From this method of dealing with difficulty, the _non-rigid_ type of dirigible was evolved.
[Ill.u.s.tration: THE BRITISH ARMY "BABY" DIRIGIBLE]
But the _non-rigid_ dirigible presented a new difficulty: how could the car be suspended from it in such a way that it would not swing? For only with a rigid connection between the car and the envelope could the greatest speed be obtained. The _Lebaudy_ solved this problem by attaching to the base of the envelope a rigid steel flooring, from which the car could then be suspended by an immovable connection. And so was evolved the _semi-rigid_ type of airship.
In recent years another solution of this problem of preventing the car from swinging has been employed to some extent: By making the car almost as long as the envelope, the connecting cables by which the car is suspended hang almost perpendicular, and there is not the same tendency to swerve as with cables slanting down to a comparatively small car.
This type of airship is called the _demi-semi-rigid_.
These then are the four general cla.s.ses of dirigibles which were used in the Great War.
CHAPTER III
DIRIGIBLES IN THE WORLD WAR
When in August, 1914, the sinister black cloud of a world war appeared on the horizon, only the Hun was prepared for the life and death struggle in the air. His formidable fleet of super-Zeppelins had not their match in the world, and his program of airship construction was being pushed forward with the utmost speed and efficiency.
France had the largest fleet of dirigibles among the Allied nations.
They were of the semi-rigid type, of only medium size and slow speed.
They could not hope to compete on equal terms with the swift and powerful German airships.
Great Britain was far worse off than France, for her airship fleet practically did not exist. The army had only two large modern dirigibles and a few very small vessels like the old _Nulli Secundus_, of little practical value. The navy had no airships at all.
Italy had a few good medium sized vessels, and four large dirigibles were in process of building. Russia, too, had several airships purchased from the other countries, of various makes and types, but she lacked experienced aeronauts with which to operate them.
Both France and England had already made extensive plans for the building of dirigibles, but few of the ships ordered were near to completion in 1914. Only the Prussian was ready for hostilities; his airships gave him a great strategic advantage. By means of them he gained information about the movements of Allied troops and munitions; directed his artillery, bombed Allied positions, and went his way, for the most part unchallenged. His naval airships were likewise a terrible menace. One of them, in the early part of the war, received an iron cross for its work in connection with a German submarine, in an attack on three British cruisers.
Every one knows of Germany"s record in the bombing of cities and towns by means of Zeppelins. In the first days of the war the Allies had no anti-aircraft guns and very few airplanes with which to protect themselves, and so Germany went unmolested while she waged her war against defenseless civilians, women and children.
The spirit of the Allies, however, could not be daunted. England put her few small dirigibles on duty over the English Channel, where they served as patrols against submarines. For this work airships are very effective, since it is a curious fact that from their height in the atmosphere it is possible to see far below the surface of the water. So during the first tragic weeks, when France and Belgium were pouring out their life-blood to check the onward sweep of the Hun, these tiny aircraft stood guard over the Channel across which the "contemptible little army" of Britain was being hurried on transports to meet the invader. Like the contemptible little army itself they proved a factor to be reckoned with. Such aerial scouts now form a large arm of the British, French and American navies. Soon after the war began they were constructed in large numbers to serve as patrols against submarines. In the language of the air, these little dirigibles are known as _Blimps_.
The _Blimp_ was first developed for use in the war by the British Naval Air Service, but the United States soon saw its advantage as a means of patroling and guarding our harbors and coastline, and so she set to work to manufacture this type of dirigible in large numbers. To-day it is the chief dirigible of our aerial fleet. In some important ways it has the advantage over the airplane in combating the submarine. For the airplane can only remain in the air while it keeps going at high speed.
Just as soon as its engines are stopped it commences to descend. But the dirigible can sail out over the harbor, shut off its power and remain motionless in the air for hours, while its observer keeps a constant lookout for enemy undersea craft. When speed is necessary its powerful motor makes it a fast flying craft, sometimes considerably faster than the airplane. For the airplane must often travel against the wind, while the dirigible simply rises until it reaches a current of air moving in the desired direction, when it has the combined power of the wind and its engine to drive it forward.
[Ill.u.s.tration: CROSS SECTION OF THE GAS-BAG OF THE _ASTRA-TORRES_, SHOWING METHOD OF CAR SUSPENSION]
The U. S. A. _Blimp_ is about 160 feet long, rounded in front and tapering to a pointed stern. Its stability and balance are increased by five "fins" at its stern; and it has also four rudders. The car, which is exactly like the ordinary airplane body, has two seats, for pilot and observer, suspended directly from the base of the envelope by wire cables. The _Blimp_ carries a 100 horse power Curtiss aviation motor, and is equipped with wireless for exchanging messages.
The French have a small airship very much like the _Blimp_ which they use for scout duty. It is called the _Zodiac_, and before the war was designed as a private pleasure car. Because of the fact that it could be easily packed and transported from place to place it was drafted into the service early in the war. Naturally, if an airship has to be kept inflated when not in use it is a constant target for the enemy"s gunfire; and a small dirigible which can be packed up in an hour when not needed and readily inflated when the call for action comes is a very much safer proposition.
There are several sizes and slightly different shapes of the _Zodiac_, but the shape of the envelope in all of them is very similar to the _Blimp_, tapering toward the stern with fins to give stability. A large sail-like rudder is set beneath the stern of the ship.
Probably the most interesting thing about the _Zodiac_ is the car which in most models has a very long wooden framework. This framework, or girder, by its length distributes the weight along the whole length of the envelope. The car, in which the pilot and observer sit, is set in this girder.
[Ill.u.s.tration: _Copyright Underwood and Underwood_
THE "BLIMP," C-1, THE LARGEST DIRIGIBLE OF THE AMERICAN NAVY]
Nothing is more interesting to note in modern airships than the simplification of the method of car suspension. In the early airships the car was hung from the envelope by a large number of cables, which either connected with a network that fitted over the envelope, or else, in a semi-rigid dirigible, to the platform or keel at the base of the balloon.
Now of course all these cables offered a great resistance to the air and were an enemy to speed. Just as the question of speed affected the shape of the envelope, until to-day we have the streamline balloon, tapering to the rear, and just as it made the question of a rigid or non-rigid envelope so important, it likewise finally did away with complicated connections between the envelope and the car.
[Ill.u.s.tration: _Copyright International Film Service, Inc._
THE BALLOON OF THE U. S. S. OKLAHOMA]
From the point of view of car suspension one of the most interesting of the modern French airships is the _Astra-Torres_. This is a dirigible of the non-rigid type. Canvas part.i.tions are stretched across the interior of the envelope in such a manner as to form a triangle, its apex facing downwards. The sides of this triangle are strengthened by cables and from its apex hang the cables which support the car. The air resistance produced by the cables is therefore very slight, since only two lines are exposed.
Among the aerial war fleets of the Allied nations, the French offers by far the greatest field for study, since it possesses many different types of dirigibles. The _Astra_ and the _Astra-Torres_ are perhaps the chief representatives of the non-rigid design, and are generally considered the most successful of the French airships. The _Astra_ is the older model, and, like the _Zodiac_, has the long wooden framework or car girder, hung directly to the base of the envelope and distributing to all parts of it the weight of the car. It can be recognized by this and by its stabilizers or small inflated gas bags around the stern of the envelope. The _Astra_ is of medium size, varying in length from 199 to 275 feet. The _Astra-Torres_ is very much longer, those of the 1914 type measuring 457 feet from nose to stern.
From the exterior, this airship has a peculiar three-lobed appearance.
It tapers very slightly to the stern and is pointed at both ends, but it has not the _Astra"s_ inflated stabilizers.
Another French airship of non-rigid design is the _Clement-Bayard_. It is similar in design and in size to the _Astra_, but without the inflated stabilizers. Rounded slightly at the nose, the envelope tapers to a sharp-pointed stern.
The _Lebaudy_ is the chief example of a French semi-rigid airship. The envelope is long and cylindrical, pointed at the nose and rounded at the stern, where it is fitted with stabilizing "fins." The base of the envelope is fitted to a long keel, which ends at the rear in a rudder and fins. From this keel the car is suspended by strong cables, and beneath the car extends a conical structure of steel tubes, with points falling downward. These serve as a protection in case of a sudden landing. In front of the car and on each side of the keel are planes similar to those of an airplane, which help to give balance to the ship.
Among airships of the Allies, the French _Speiss_ furnishes an example of the purely rigid design. Constructed on the plan of the German Zeppelin, its envelope has an inner wooden framework which holds it in place. The _Speiss_ is a large dirigible, measuring about 450 feet. It carries two cars, and in each is a two-hundred horse power motor, giving it great speed.
PART III
CHAPTER I
EARLY EXPERIMENTS WITH HEAVIER-THAN-AIR MACHINES
For many centuries before the ascension of the first Montgolfier balloon, which, as we have seen, marked the beginning of aerial flight, men had dreamed of a different method of conquering the skies,--in fact, the very natural one suggested by the flight of birds. To build artificial wings was the ambition of many an old-time scientist. Yet practicable as the idea seemed, its working out was, as a matter of fact, beset with difficulties. The Montgolfier balloon rose in the air because it was _lighter_ than air,--just as a piece of cork rises in water because it weighs less in proportion to its volume than the water.