In at least two of the preceding chapters of this book reference has been made to the speed at which a sh.e.l.l fired from a gun travels through the air. Such velocities as 3,000 feet per second have been mentioned in this connection, and some readers are sure to have wondered how such measurements could possibly be made. Possibly some sceptics have even supposed that they were not measured at all but simply estimated in some way or other. They are actually measured, however, and by very simple and ingenious means.
Needless to say, electricity plays a very important part in this wonderful achievement. In fact, without the aid of electricity it is difficult to see how it could be done at all.
People often ask how quickly electricity travels, as if when we sent a telegraph signal along a wire a little bullet, so to speak, of electricity were shot along the wire like the carriers of the pneumatic tubes in the big drapers" shops. That is quite a misconception, for in reality the circuit of wire is more like a pipe full of electricity, and when we set a current flowing what we do is to set the whole of that electricity moving at once. If we think of a circular tube full of water with a pump at one spot in the circuit, we see that as soon as the water begins to move anywhere it moves everywhere. Moreover, if it stops at one point it stops simultaneously at every other point. While practically this is the case it is theoretically not quite so, for the inertia of the water when it is suddenly started or stopped no doubt causes a slight distortion of the tube itself resulting in a very slight (quite imperceptible) r.e.t.a.r.dation of the movement of the water.
Electricity also has a property comparable to the inertia which we are familiar with in the objects around us, and there is also a property in every conductor which to a certain extent resembles the elasticity of the water-pipe, whereby it may for a moment be bulged out. In a short wire, however (up to a mile or so), particularly if the flow and return parts of the circuit be twisted together, this electrical inertia practically vanishes and consequently we may say that for all practical purposes the current starts or stops, as the case may be, at precisely the same moment in every part of the circuit.
That fact is of great value when, as in the case we are now discussing, we want to compare very exactly two events occurring very near together as to time but far apart as to place.
[Ill.u.s.tration: BOMB-THROWERS AT WORK.
Many kinds of bombs are used. One has a metal head and a handle about a foot long, with a streamer to ensure correct flight; another form resembles a brush when it is flying through the air; and a third, known as "the egg," is oval in form.]
We need to compare the time when the sh.e.l.l leaves the gun with the time when it pa.s.ses another point, say, one hundred yards away, and then again another point, say one hundred yards further on still. Supposing, then, a velocity of 3,000 feet per second, the time interval between the first point and the second and between the second and third will be somewhere about a tenth of a second. So we shall need a timepiece of some sort which will not only measure a tenth of a second, but will measure for us a very small _difference_ between two periods, each of which is only about a tenth of a second and which will be very nearly alike. That represents a degree of accuracy exceeding even what the astronomers, those princes of measurers, are accustomed to.
This exceedingly delicate timepiece is found in a falling weight. So long as the thing is so heavy that the air resistance is negligible, we can calculate with the greatest nicety how long a weight has taken to fall through a given distance.
Near the muzzle of the gun there is set up a frame upon which are stretched a number of wires so close together that a sh.e.l.l cannot get past without breaking at least one of them. These wires are connected together so as to form one, and through them there flows a current of electricity the action of which, through an electro-magnet in the instrument house, holds up a long lead weight.
At some distance away, say one hundred yards, there is a similar frame also electrically connected to an electro-magnet in the same instrument house. This second magnet, when energized by current from the frame, holds back a sharp point which, under the action of a spring, tends to press forward and scratch the lead weight. The third frame is likewise connected to a third magnet controlling a point similar to the other.
To commence with, current flows through all three frames so that all three magnets are energized. The gun is then fired and immediately the sh.e.l.l breaks a wire in the first frame, cutting off the current from the first magnet and allowing the weight to fall. Meanwhile, the sh.e.l.l reaches the second frame, breaking a wire there, with the result that the second magnet loses its power, lets go the point which it has been holding back and permits it to make a light scratch upon the falling weight. This action is followed almost immediately by a similar action on the part of the third magnet, resulting in a second scratch on the lead weight.
The position of these two scratches on the weight and their distance apart gives a very accurate indication of the time taken by the sh.e.l.l to pa.s.s from the first screen to the second and from the second to the third. From those times it is possible to calculate the initial velocity of the sh.e.l.l and the speed at which it will move in any part of its course. Indeed, with those two times as data, it is possible to work out all that it is necessary to know about the behaviour of the sh.e.l.l.
This is rendered practicable by the fact that the moment the wire is cut the magnet lets go, no matter what the distance of the screen from the instrument may be. But for the instantaneous action of the current, allowance of some sort would have to be made for the fact that one screen is farther than another and the whole problem would be made much more complicated.
Even as it is, someone may urge that the magnets themselves possess inertia and will not let go quite instantaneously, but that can be overcome by making the magnets all alike so that the inertia will affect all equally. It is only necessary to have a switch which will break all the three circuits at the same moment (quite an easy thing to arrange) and then adjust all three magnets so that when this is operated they act simultaneously. After that they can be relied upon to do their duty quite accurately.
Thus by a method which in its details is quite simple is this seemingly impossible measurement taken.
CHAPTER XIII
SOME ADJUNCTS IN THE ENGINE ROOM
Before we deal with the subject of the engines employed in warfare, it may be interesting to mention two beautiful little inventions which have been made in connection with them.
Let us take first of all a contrivance which tells almost at a glance the amount of work which the engines of a ship are doing.
As everyone knows, there is in every ship (except those few which are propelled by paddles) a long steel shaft, called the tail-shaft, which runs from the engine situated somewhere near amidships to the propeller at the stern. Many ships, of course, have several propellers, and then there are several shafts. Now each of these shafts is a thick strong steel rod supported at intervals in bearings. If anyone were told that, in working, that shaft became more or less twisted, he would be tempted to think he was being made fun of. Yet such is literally the case. The thick strong ma.s.sive bar becomes actually twisted by the turning action of the engine at one end and the resistance of the propeller at the other. And the amount of that twisting is a measure of the work which the engine is doing. The puzzle is how to measure it while the engine is running, for of course the twist comes out of it as soon as the engine stops.
A s.p.a.ce on the shaft is selected, between two bearings, for the fixing of the apparatus. Near to each bearing there is fitted on to the shaft a metal disc with a small hole in it. On one of the bearings is fixed a lamp and on the other a telescope. When the engine is at rest and there is no twist in the shaft, all these four things--the lamp, the two holes, and the telescope--are in line. Consequently, on looking through the telescope the light is visible. But when the engine is at work and the shaft is more or less twisted one of the holes gets out of line and it becomes impossible to see the light through the telescope. A slight adjustment of the telescope, however, brings all four into line again, which adjustment can be easily made by a screw motion provided for the purpose. And the amount of adjustment that is found necessary forms a measure of the amount of the twisting which the shaft suffers and that again tells the number of horse-power which the engine is putting into its work.
But it is also necessary to know how fast the engine is working. There are many devices which will tell this, of which the speedometer on a motor-car is a familiar example. Most of those work on the centrifugal principle, the instrument actually measuring not the speed but the centrifugal force resulting from the speed, which amounts to the same thing. There is one instrument, however, which operates on quite a different principle, because of which it is specially interesting. It consists of a nice-looking wooden box with a gla.s.s front. Through the gla.s.s one sees a row of little white k.n.o.bs. If this be placed somewhere near the engine while it is at work immediately one of the k.n.o.bs commences to move rapidly up and down, so that it looks no longer like a k.n.o.b but is elongated into a white band. There is no visible connection between the instrument and the engine, yet the number over that particular k.n.o.b which becomes thus agitated indicates the speed of the engine.
Let us in imagination open the case and we shall find that the k.n.o.bs are attached to the ends of a number of light steel springs set in a row.
The springs are all precisely alike except for their length, in which respect no two are alike. Indeed, as you proceed from one side of the instrument to the other each succeeding one is a little longer than the previous one. Now a spring has a certain speed at which it naturally vibrates and other things being equal that speed depends upon its length. You can, of course, force any spring to vibrate at any speed if you care to take the trouble, but each one has its own natural speed at which it will vibrate under very slight provocation.
Every engine is, of course, made to run as smoothly as possible. All revolving or reciprocating parts are for this reason carefully balanced and in turbines the whole moving part, since it is round and symmetrical, naturally approaches a condition of perfect balance. Hence every engine ought to run perfectly smoothly. As a matter of fact, however, no engine ever does. There are certain limitations to man"s skill and at the high speed of a fast-running engine, such as is to be found on a destroyer, for example, some little irregularity is sure to make itself felt by a slight vibration in the floor. It may be hardly perceptible to the senses, but to a spring whose natural frequency happens to be just that same speed or nearly so, it will be very apparent and in a few seconds that spring will be responding quite vigorously.
It is another example of the principle of resonance, which is employed so finely in making wireless telegraph apparatus selective. Every wireless apparatus is made to have a certain natural frequency of its own and it therefore picks up readily those signals which proceed from another station having the same frequency while ignoring those from others. In just the same way a reed or spring in this speed-indicator picks up and responds to impulses derived from the engine only when they are of a frequency corresponding with its own natural frequency. Hence, one spring out of the whole range responds to the vibrations of the engine while the others remain almost if not entirely unaffected.
In another form, the springs are actuated electrically. A magnet, or a series of magnets, is arranged so that as the engine turns the magnets pa.s.s successively near to a coil of wire, thereby inducing currents in that wire. They form, in fact, a small dynamo or generator, generating one impulse per revolution or two or three or whatever number may be most convenient. Then the current from this is led round the coil of a long electro-magnet placed just under the free ends of all the springs.
The magnet therefore gives a series of pulls, at regular intervals, and the rapidity of those pulls will depend upon the speed of the engine, while the frequency of them will be registered by the movement of one or other of the springs.
This instrument can also be employed to determine the speed of aeroplane motors and, in fact, any kind of engine, especially those whose speed is very high.
CHAPTER XIV
ENGINES OF WAR
The phrase which I have used for the t.i.tle of this chapter is often given a very wide meaning which includes all kinds and varieties of devices used in warfare. In this case I am giving it its narrower sense, taking it to indicate the steam-engines and oil-engines which are employed to drive our battleships, cruisers and destroyers, our submarines and our aircraft. They are inventions of the highest importance, which have played a large part in shaping modern warfare.
The type of engine almost invariably used on ships of war other than submarines is the steam turbine. Great Britain, for the most part, uses that particular kind a.s.sociated with the name of the Hon. Sir C. A.
Parsons, while the United States rather favour the Curtiss machine.
Other nations have adopted either one of these or else something very similar.
All turbines are very simple in their principle, far more so that the older type of steam-engine, called, because the essential parts of it move to and fro, the "reciprocating" steam-engine.
In these latter machines there are a number of cylinders with closed ends and with very smooth interiors, in each of which slides a disc-like object called a piston. The steam enters a cylinder first at one end and then at the other, thus pushing the piston to and fro. The movement of the piston is communicated to the outside by means of a rod which pa.s.ses through a hole in the cover at one end of the cylinder, the to and fro motion being converted into a round and round motion by a connecting-rod and crank just as the up and down motion of a cyclist"s knees is converted into a round and round motion by the lower leg and the crank. The lower part of a cyclist"s leg is, indeed, a very accurate ill.u.s.tration of what the connecting-rod of a steam-engine is.
As is evident to the hastiest observer, some arrangement has to be made whereby the steam shall be led first into one end and then into the other end of the cylinder: also that provision shall be made for letting the steam out again when it has done its work. Moreover, such arrangements must be automatic. Hence, every reciprocating engine has special valves for this purpose and such valves need rods and cranks (or something equivalent) to operate them. Further, to get the best results the steam must not simply be pa.s.sed through one cylinder but through several in succession. Engines where the steam goes through only one cylinder are called "simple," where it goes through two they are "compound," where three "triple-expansion," where four "quadruple-expansion." Generally speaking, each cylinder has its own connecting-rod and crank, also its own set of rods, etc., for working its valves. Hence, a high-cla.s.s marine reciprocating engine is of necessity a complicated ma.s.s of cylinders, rods, cranks and other moving parts continually swinging round or to and fro at considerable speeds, all needing oiling and attention and all liable at times to give trouble.
And now compare that with the turbine, which has TWO parts, only one of which moves. That part, moreover, is tightly shut up inside the other one, being thereby protected from any chance of damage from outside and likewise rendered unable to inflict any damage upon those in attendance upon it.
At first sight it seems very strange that the turbine should be the newer of the two, for it is simply an improved form of the old time-honoured picturesque windmill which used to top every hill and grind the corn for every village and hamlet.
The old windmill had four sails against which the wind blew, driving the whole four round as everyone knows. The new turbine has a great many sails, only we now call them blades, and the steam blows them round. The old windmill had to have another smaller set of sails at the back for the purpose of keeping the main sails always in that position in which they would catch the full force of the breeze. In the turbine we need not do that, for we shut the windmill up in a kind of tunnel and cause the steam to blow in at one end and out at the other.
The difference between the various kinds of turbine lies simply in the manner in which the steam is guided in its pa.s.sage through the machine.
After that general description we can take a more detailed view of the Parsons turbine. The casing or fixed part is a huge iron box suitably shaped for standing firmly and rigidly upon the floor of the engine-room. It is made in two halves, the upper of which can be easily lifted off when necessary. Often, indeed, this upper half is hinged to the lower, so that it can be opened like the lid of a box.
Inside, the casing is cylindrical, comparatively small at one end but increasing by steps till it is very much larger at the other end. At each end is a bearing or support in which the rotor or moving part is held and in which it can turn freely.
The rotor or part which rotates is a strong steel forging shaped somewhat to follow the lines of the inside of the casing. It does not entirely fill the casing but leaves a s.p.a.ce all round and all the way along, which s.p.a.ce is intended to accommodate the blades. The ends of the rotor are smaller than the body since they are intended to fit into the bearings, and one of the ends is prolonged so as to be available for coupling to the propeller-shaft of the ship.
At one end of the casing, the smaller one, is the steam inlet and the steam after emerging from it pa.s.ses along till it finds its way out at a very large outlet formed at the bigger end. On its way it has to pa.s.s thousands of small blades so that the progress of each individual particle of steam is not a straight line but a continual zigzag. There are rings of blades round the rotor, tightly fixed to its surface. There are likewise rings of blades affixed to the inner surface of the casing, the rings upon the casing coming in the s.p.a.ces between the rings on the rotor.
Let us imagine that we can see through the casing of a turbine at work and that looking down upon it from above we can trace the progress of a particle of steam. It rushes in from the inlet and at once makes straight for the outlet at the further end. Suddenly, however, it encounters one of the guide blades (those on the case) and by it is deflected to one side, we will suppose the left. That causes it to rush straight at one of the blades upon the rotor against which it strikes violently, giving that blade a distinct and definite push to the left.
Rebounding, it then comes back towards the right but quickly is caught by another guide blade and by it hurled back upon a second rotor blade, giving it a leftward push just as it did to the first. Thus it goes zigzagging from one set of blades to the other until, tired out, so to speak, it finally flows away forceless and feeble through the outlet, having given up all its energy to the blades of the rotor against which it has struck in its course.