7. Tonsberg Overlaerer 2500 2650 2800 Laerer, h.g. 2400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 Laerer, l.g. 1400 Laererinde, h.g. 1300 Laererinde, l.g. 900 980 1060 1140 1220 1300
8. Kongsberg Laerer, h.g. 1800 Laerer, l.g. 1300 1450 1600 1700 1800 Laererinde, h.g. 1100 Laererinde, l.g. 700 800 900 1000 1100
Chapter III
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS
I. INTRODUCTORY--RISE, DEVELOPMENT, AND PRESENT FORM OF THE CURRICULUM
We come now to a consideration of the course of study in the school system as it has evolved and is now operative. As was true throughout other parts of Europe, so in Norway, education during the middle ages issued almost exclusively from the cloister and cathedral schools (_Dom-og Kathedral Skoler_), and in them are found the germs of most modern courses of study. Inasmuch as the successive steps in the evolution of the recent schools of Europe from the earlier forms vary but little in the several countries, and since the subject is already familiar to nearly all students of education, we omit any technical discussion of that interesting feature of history, and refer the reader to any of the several works treating it fully. Suffice it to say, the aim of the church in maintaining these earlier schools centered in the development of a qualified clergy about whom should be gathered a loyal following, well-trained in the dogmas, doctrines, and traditions of the organization.
At this time the monk and a small company of disciples const.i.tuted the school. The little group studied together from day to day in and about the cloister or cathedral. Among them, very naturally, certain new thoughts and ideals sprung up. The masters saw the new developments if they were not themselves parties to them. As the newer thoughts became fixed in the youthful minds, individual interests pressed harder and harder still until provision was made for extending the work of instruction as well as for widening the scope of activities within the schools. While the aim was at first to give instruction and discipline in lines necessary to a clerical career, it changed by degrees until it included branches useful in legitimate occupations other than that of the clergy. However, the diversifying of school activities and the enrichment of the program of study did not keep pace with the changes that were taking place in other phases of the social cosmos. A spirit of unrest grew to proportions almost ungovernable until the middle age renaissance in learning removed the fetters and brought relief by effecting systems of education very fitting to the requirements. Great credit is due to the leaders in the Reformation for the part they played in placing means for instruction and education upon a more secure and permanent basis, and for the service they rendered in giving to the schools certain vitality that had rarely, if ever, been characteristic of any similar inst.i.tution.
The new type of school bore a stamp of general approval which enabled it to gain a momentum which was not soon to be overcome. In fact, the schools of all the more civilized countries are still largely dominated by traditions dating back to the epoch-making works of such men as Erasmus, Luther, Melanchthon, and Sturm.
Now the ideas of these famous educators were less subjected to change in Norway than in the centers from whence they came. Until the union between this country and Denmark came to an end in 1814, very little thought was given to advancing educational interests in Norway. The work of her cathedral schools had been little improved during the centuries that had pa.s.sed since their establishment. When at last Norway became a free const.i.tutional state and these Nors.e.m.e.n breathed the air of freedom, felt the exhilaration of greater personal liberties, realized that their destiny was to be of their own making, and fully sensed their important responsibilities in the situation, they all, ecclesiasts and politicians, capitalists and laborers, combined in developing their schools in ways calculated to lift the ma.s.ses to higher intellectual planes. The changes wrought were in relation to what was to be taught and to the extension of learning. An opportunity for instruction was given to every youth in the land.
For a long time the ancient languages formed the bulk of higher learning, while in the primary schools only the rudiments of a few subjects were attempted. Social tendencies soon required an increase in the number of branches to be taught, and also laid added weight upon the importance of such study as would be of benefit in vocational activities. Accordingly, mathematics, history, geography, and nature study became more prominent features in all schools. One of the best characteristics of the work throughout is that the mother-tongue has been at all times a dominating factor through every grade of their schools. Later in the process a demand for the modern foreign languages was responded to favorably and they took places in the curriculum of the higher school. These changes bring us down through the last century to the recent forms in courses of study and we shall introduce the reader immediately into the present situation.
Besides the inst.i.tutions for higher learning there are now three distinct sections in the school system of Norway, viz.: Primary School, Middle School, and Gymnasium. The primary school is designed to provide education of an elementary type for every citizen of the country. By vital cooperation and the exercise of great care in organization, distribution, supervision, and inspection of these schools, the people have overcome illiteracy and have reduced truancy to a minimum--almost to a negligible factor. They are unitedly converted to the belief that an enlightened populace is a necessity to the continuity of desirable inst.i.tutions, to the development of resources, and to the maintenance of worthy traditions. To secure for all the essentials of good and intelligent citizenship, an attempt has been made to have the curriculum for the primary schools include the branches of study which have meaning in every walk of life, and which enhance the efficiency of each citizen in his individual activities. In short, it is the intent that all the people shall have the more abundant life which comes with a thorough, general, elementary education; and, at the same time, that they shall be prepared for the higher schools which build on the broad foundation of the common school.
Following the primary schools are the middle schools which lead still farther in the pathway of intellectual development those whose situation in life enables them to proceed with school work. Besides carrying forward the lines of study begun in the lower school with added vigor and exact.i.tude, they include a large amount of work in foreign modern languages. Thus we see that this second section in the great inst.i.tution of learning fills in the elementary framework, enriches the fund of information, adds a considerable amount of culture, and paves the way for the more liberal training to follow in the next section.
The Gymnasium succeeds and builds directly upon the work of the middle school. Its function is to provide a liberal culture and education suited to the needs and desires of those who become in large part the leaders in all phases of political, professional, or other social careers.
Thus we note that the succeeding steps taken in the educational ladder are in harmony with and dependent upon preceding work. While only a correspondingly small number pa.s.s to the summit, all the people enjoy the advantages of the broad fundamentals and generalizations which lie at the base of their educational system and equip very well for the common walks and vocations of life. In our discussion we shall separate the work of the three sections and consider them one at a time. It seems advisable to handle them in this way, and we believe that a more adequate conception of the work as a whole will be obtained by offering first the part affecting all the people and dealing with the primary schools.
II. THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS
The primary schools are of two kinds,--those specially designed for the rural sections of the country and others provided for the towns and cities, the latter being somewhat richer in curricula, more complete in organization, and more thorough in operation than the former.
Considering the fact that such uniformity characterizes the courses of study in the various schools, it will be necessary to present but one outline for each cla.s.s of schools. An effort has been made to select courses that are representative and which clearly set forth typical conditions. Table VIII gives the program of work offered in one of the rural communes, and shows the number of hours per week devoted to each branch of study for the seven years in the course. Just after the legislative act of 1889, the Department sent out a "normal plan" which served as a guide in arranging the time-tables for rural munic.i.p.alities.
As a result great uniformity exists.
TABLE VIII
Table Showing the Number of Hours per Week for Each Branch of Instruction in the Course of Study in Fredrikvaern Commune.[21]
Year I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Total Religion 7 7 5 6 6 6 6 43 Norwegian 10 8 8 8 8 6 6 54 Mathematics 6 5 4 6 4 6 6 37 Geography 2 2 3 3 3 13 History 2 2 3 3 3 13 Nature Study 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 14 Writing 5 5 4 4 2 2 2 24 Drawing 1 2 2 2 2 9 Vocal Music 2 1 2 2 2 2 11 Manual Training 2 2 4 6 6 20 Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 8 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- Total 30 30 30 38 38 40 40 246
The program just above is normal and typical in every respect. The schools are very uniform in their work and, as previously stated, no further tables are necessary in order to give a concise idea of the work generally presented in the rural districts of the entire country.
The second program selected is the one used in the primary schools of Christiania.[22] The schools of this city are among the best and are taken as models for a number in other cities and towns.
TABLE IX
Course of study showing weekly hours in Christiania Primary Schools.
Division First Second Third Year I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Total s.e.x[A] B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Religion 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 6-2 4 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 24 22 Norwegian 12 11 10 8 8 7 5 5 5 4 5 4 5 5 50 44 Mathematics 5 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 26 23 Geography 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 8 History 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 8 8 Nature Study 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 7 7 Writing 4 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 16 14 Drawing 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 6 Vocal Music 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 Manual Training 2 4 4 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 6 26 Gymnastics 2-2 0 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 9 5 Total 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 168 168
[Note: Year 1910-1911.]
[Note A: _B_ refers to boys, _G_ to girls.]
The comparative table on page 106 clearly evidences the similarities already referred to and, at the same time, serves to indicate all variations. However, in the making of comparisons, difference in the number and distribution of hours is more a matter of method or correlation between branches than an indication of actual difference in accomplishment. For example, a large number of hours for writing _may_ mean exclusively work in practice writing, but it is very probable that it will include a considerable amount of work in the mother-tongue or a definite correlation with nature study, history, or religion. The fundamental standard by which work is judged or measured is whether it prepares the pupil fully for work in the middle school.
TABLE X
Comparative table of Courses of Study in ten cities.
Religion | Norwegian | | Mathematics | | | Geography | | | | History | | | | | Nature Study | | | | | | Writing | | | | | | | Drawing | | | | | | | | Vocal Music | | | | | | | | | Manual Training | | | | | | | | | | Gymnastics | | | | | | | | | | | |Total -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- City s.e.x(A) B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G B G -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Christiania 24 22 50 44 26 23 9 8 8 8 7 7 16 14 8 6 5 5 6 26 9 5 168 168 Bergen 21 21 55 53 29 28 8 8 9 9 8 7 10 8 9 8 5 5 8 24 10 7 172 178 Trondhjem 23 22 57 51 31 27 12 11 11 11 8 8 18 15 7 4 4 5 8 29 9 7 188 190 Stavanger 22 22 63 57 30 30 8 8 11 11 7 7 12 10 4 4 5 5 10 23 8 5 180 182 Drammen 24 24 52 47 29 25 8 8 8 8 6 5 17 13 5 3 5 5 6 25 8 5 168 168 Kristiansand 22 22 49 49 25 25 10 10 11 11 8 7 13 13 5 5 5 5 6 8 8 6 162 161 Aalesund 27 27 46 44 26 22 6 6 11 11 6 5 16 15 4 3 5 5 6 21 9 5 162 164 Fredrikshald 21 22 52 44 25 23 10 9 9 7 5 6 14 11 5 6 6 6 8 24 7 4 162 162 Skien 21 21 47 44 25 24 10 8 9 8 7 5 16 14 4 4 5 5 10 24 8 5 162 162 Kristiansund 24 24 50 47 27 26 8 8 9 8 8 7 18 15 3 3 5 5 6 20 10 5 168 168
[Note A: _B_ refers to boys, _G_ to girls.]
RELIGION READING RECKONING RITING
The four R"s in Norway"s educational system form the center of their educational endeavors. Only a superficial glance at the tables presented is necessary in order to notice their prominence throughout the course of study. While the amount of time devoted to them is in itself a sufficiently strong indication of their predominance, we must also carry in mind an allowance for closest possible correlation between them as constant and additional factors along the same line. Bearing these things in mind we enter at once upon the discussion of the course of study or school plan. Though the programs presented and digest of plans following or accompanying are taken from particular schools, the discussion throughout will be general unless otherwise specified. For varied reasons, but chiefly because they are typical, specific, and concrete, the courses of study used in Christiania--primary and secondary--are chosen as ill.u.s.trations. The following is not a verbatim translation of Christiania"s plan of instruction but an abbreviated statement of the work as outlined in their published school plan (_Skoleplan_). I have endeavored to select the more vital points throughout and to represent them as exactly as a condensed version renders possible. Where inaccuracies or omissions occur they are due to a demand for economy--the things omitted not being regarded as absolute essentials to a correct representation of the intent and spirit of the work as carried on.
OUTLINE OF SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION
_Religion_
_Aim._ The aims of instruction in religion are to develop the religious instincts of the children and to instill in them a recognition of Christianity, out of which may grow a healthy Christian life and a clear conception of the church.
To attain these, an effort is made to impart the following fund of information:
Definite acquaintance with the more important parts of Bible history, with the chief events in church history, and with the catechism according to the Evangelical Lutheran creed.
_First Division_
_Cla.s.s I._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Instruction during the beginning weeks consists in simple stories, songs, hymns, prayers, and conversations designed to impart a knowledge of Christianity, ethics, and morals; to effect definite connections with previous home training; and to awaken and develop religious and moral att.i.tudes in the children preparatory to the more direct instruction to follow.
The real instruction in Christianity or religion begins with Bible stories selected from the Old and New Testaments and specially adapted to the understanding of the children and their ability to master the same. The following stories are among the ones used: The Story of Joseph, Samuel and Hannah, David and Goliath, The Birth of Jesus, The Three Wise Men, Jesus in the Temple, Jesus Feeding the Five Thousand, Jesus Raising the Widow"s Son, Jesus Blessing the Children, Jesus Teaching the Disciples How to Pray. The stories are presented orally and explained and elucidated in such a way that the children may receive clear and vivid pictures of the persons and events referred to, appreciate their connections with the Holy Scriptures, and be able to rehea.r.s.e the narratives in an intelligent manner. Whenever possible the religious or moral content of the conversation should be brought to a climax in a simple pa.s.sage of Scripture, a response from the catechism, or a verse of some hymn, which should be memorized.
_Cla.s.s II._ (Six half hour periods weekly.) Bible stories from Old and New Testaments taken mainly from the time of the patriarchs and Moses.
Among them are the following:
_From Old Testament_: The Creation and Eden, The Fall, Cain and Abel, The Flood, The Call of Abraham, Abraham and Lot, The Birth and Offering of Isaac, The Marriage of Isaac, Esau and Jacob, Isaac Blessing His Sons, Jacob"s Flight, The Birth and Rearing of Moses, The Call of Moses, Moses Before Pharaoh, The Exodus from Egypt.