The School System of Norway.
by David Allen Anderson.
PREFACE
This account is a descriptive statement of the organization, management, operation, and efficiency of the public school system of Norway. The intent has been to consider only the more vital features, those essentials which definitely shape the products of educational endeavor.
Many topics of interest have been touched but briefly while others have been omitted altogether. Some attention has been given to pointing out good qualities of the Norwegian schools and to indicating wherein we might improve our own.
The materials entering into the make-up of this dissertation were gathered during a summer and autumn devoted to travel and study in Norway. Much time was spent in study at the University Library in Christiania and still more in the visitation of schools. It was with pleasure that I availed myself of the opportunity to see the schools in operation. I observed recitations throughout the entire program of study in every grade from the kindergarten to the University. I also visited many special schools and other educational inst.i.tutions both public and private. Further than this, I was benefited by frequent conferences with the leading educators of the country and by almost constant a.s.sociations with schoolmen, patrons, and students. These personal investigations enabled me to become familiar with the spirit and work of the schools, and they furnish background for a large part of the content of this treatise. Since no adequate account of the schools of Norway is in print, the authority for this work has been gained chiefly from school laws, annual reports from the Department of Ecclesiastical and Educational Affairs (chiefly statistical), and the individual research referred to above.
It was my good fortune to be provided with official credentials as holder of a Traveling Fellowship for study in Norway from the State University of Iowa; a commission to study the school system of Norway from His Excellency, B. F. Carroll, the Governor of the State of Iowa; and a letter of introduction to Norway"s educational executives from Hon. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, at that time Commissioner of Education for the United States. These credentials had the effect of intensifying the already superior courtesy and obliging disposition of the Norwegian officials and schoolmen, who gave me free access to every facility for the pursuance of my work within the state and voluntarily offered their cooperation whenever I might desire it. Their gracious exemplification of the spirit of brotherly kindness made my work among them a constant delight. I desire to express my grat.i.tude to the Norwegians wherever I traveled for the rare cordiality characterizing my reception among them and to acknowledge my obligations to J. K. Qvigstad, _chef for Kirk-og Undervisningsdepartmentet_; Knut Johannes Hougen, _byraachef for Undervisningsvaesen_; A. H. Raeder, _Undervisningsraadets_ formand; Johan Andreas Johnsen, _Skoledirektoren i Kristiania stift_; Otto Andreas Anderssen, _Bestyrer og forstelaerer i det Paedagogiske Seminar for Laerere red hoiere Almenskoler_, for valuable suggestions and careful reading and criticism of the entire work in ma.n.u.script; further to Iowa"s Board of Education and the Graduate Faculty of the State University of Iowa for the appointment which made possible the investigation; to Professor F. E. Bolton, who first suggested that I make the study and who has constantly been to me a wise counsellor and a willing co-operator; and finally to my wife who, through all, has been both critic and companion.
DAVID ALLEN ANDERSON.
_The State University of Iowa, Iowa City, May, 1912._
REVIEWER"S PREFACE
Kristiania den 16 februar 1912.
Jeg har med stor fornoielse gjennemlaest Mr. David A. Andersons fremstilling av Norges Undervisningsvaesen og fundet den i all vaesentlige ting korrekt, fuldstaendig og oplysende. Gjennem personlig iagttagelse, samtale med kompetente maend og studium av den vigtigste litteratur er det lykkes forfatteren at danne sig en klar og noiagtig forestilling om de norske skolers ordning og saeregne arbeidsformer i deres historiske tilblivelse og nuvaerende vilkaar. Hans reflektioner og domme vedner om paedagogiske indsight og uavhaengig opfatning. Det er mulig at han nu og da er noget tilboielig til at domme vel gunstig om vore skoleinst.i.tutioners effektivitet og vort folks interesse og offervillighed for at gjorc denne saa stor some mulig, men dette for haenge sammen med at han ser tingene mot en bakgrund av amerikanske forhold, som han onsker reformeret.
Jeg har ikke havt anledning til at kontrollere i det enkelte de statistiske opgaver forfatteren meddeler, men da disse er hentet ut fra officielle kilder tviler jeg ikke paa at de er rigtige.
PROFESSOR DR OTTO ANDERSSEN,
_Princ.i.p.al of the Pedagogical Seminary annexed to the University of Christiania._
THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWA
_Chapter I_
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION
I. INTRODUCTION
The history of mankind in Norway covers a period of at least five thousand years and includes a great variety of interesting incidents and conditions. The accounts of the earlier ages may be read only in archaeological formations, while for more recent times, these silent records are supplemented and enriched by traditions. All such accounts are of deep interest and significance but only in a measure reliable. We have no really authentic information regarding Norway"s political history until the reign of Harald the Fair Haired (860-930). We do know, however, that, previous to his establishment of the sovereign state of Norway in 872, the people had known only the rule of numerous petty, warring earls and kings. Besides this, the entire country had been subjected to the devastations of the vikings. These sea robbers were the terror of all the coast countries in western Europe and the British Isles until about the year 900 when sea robbery at home was abolished, and the Nors.e.m.e.n became colonizers, migrating to surrounding islands, the west and south of Europe, and probably America. Now when piracy began to decline the people rose to a higher plane of living, and the prosperity attained through peace and industry was found to be the more desirable. A long succession of kings, some good and some evil, ruled the land. Paganism was gradually overcome, and about the year 1,000 Christianity was established.
From this time on, for several centuries, the country experienced only moderate visible progress though large gains were made in potential powers. In 1381, Norway entered into a union with Denmark and remained in large measure subject to her power until 1814. This period of more than four hundred years was a season of little good and of great hardships to the people. Their development received little attention, the resources of the country and the cause of education were neglected, and the ma.s.ses were not recognized in a way that would tend to their enlightenment and progress. The entire nation suffered from international difficulties as well as from oppression at home.
Conditions remained unimproved and the latent powers of the people, which had been acc.u.mulating for generations, found no adequate means for expression.
When in 1814 the treaty of Kiel, sanctioned by the European powers, forced Norway into an unwilling union with Sweden, the Norwegians revolted; and, in their attempt to liberate themselves, adopted a const.i.tution for their government.[1] Their revolt created ill feelings on the part of the Swedes while the demands for complete sovereignty by Sweden were resented by the Norwegians. The adoption of this const.i.tution by the people of Norway and their standing so tenaciously for its recognition are manifestations of the spirit which had been developing among them for centuries. They believed that they were being imposed upon and stood firm for their rights. They had felt the crushing hand of foreign rule, they had observed the benefits of independence, they had developed confidence in their own powers, and now they were converted to the idea that the time for home rule was upon them. Civil liberty was their dream. State rights came to be demanded. Their time to act in a decisive manner had come. The people had grown into a nation deserving and in need of larger powers, and their best advancement was in great measure dependent upon the exercise of these powers. Conditions then justified their demands and Sweden, appreciating the situation, yielded, acknowledged the independence of Norway, and agreed to govern in accordance with the newly adopted const.i.tution. On the other hand, Norway acceded to the demands of Sweden in accepting the King of Sweden as theirs also.
Now for nearly one hundred years this union was maintained. Comparative peace and prosperity prevailed and the outlook seemed favorable for both nations. Sweden profited because of the new relations, and Norway gained in strength and power through her experience in individual initiative and governmental duties generally. While the relations between the two countries were in the main friendly, on various occasions Norway felt that her rights were not always respected. The people craved larger privileges, more recognition among the nations of the world, and the exercise of greater authority. The functioning of capacities that had long lain dormant revealed to her the powers that were still latent.
Norway became eager for absolute independence and these feelings rose to larger and larger proportions until desires became demands. All the people were ready and offered their services, their fortunes (whether large or scant), and their lives in the cause of freedom. Finally, formally, and without bloodshed, the bonds uniting the two countries were severed in 1905 and Norway became an independent nation.
Having briefly sketched the history of the country let us now turn our attention to its geography. Norway, as we all know, lies in the northwestern part of Europe, and measures over one thousand one hundred miles from north to south and from two hundred to nearly five hundred miles from east to west. Politically it is divided into eighteen counties (_Amter_) and the cities of Christiania and Bergen. These counties are subdivided into six hundred sixty-six townships or communes (_Kommuner_) which are again divided into school districts or circles (_Kredser_) numbering in all five thousand nine hundred seventy.[2]
The area is approximately one hundred and twenty-five thousand square miles. Nearly all of it is made up of mountains which have no regularity in distribution, a large portion of them being merely heaps of barren rock thrown up in conglomerate ma.s.ses. The valleys are as numerous and irregular as the mountains. In them are lakes, rivers, and waterfalls, their waters pure and clear as crystal. The lakes differ greatly in outline and size. The rivers in their windings dash furiously through precipitous, rugged, rocky channels, or glide murmuringly through quiet valleys until they reach the fjords which appear like huge arms of the sea, reaching deep into the earth and extending far inland. The waterfalls vary from mere threads tinkling into tiny pools to great torrents gushing over dizzy precipices. Viewed in combination these features present an infinite variety of exquisitely beautiful scenes.
The climate of Norway is greatly diversified owing to the wide range in lat.i.tude and the influence of the Gulf stream. In the northern part and on the highest mountains there are vast fields of snow during the entire year, while in some of the sheltered portions along the western coast, the climate is well adapted to the cultivation of some of the tropical plants. It is, of course, essential that all plants that are cultivated be of rapid growth and of quick maturity, since their seasons are quite short. The atmospheric conditions are excelled nowhere. Few locations on the earth enjoy such freshness or provide so much mental and physical invigoration. Just the joy of living is more than recompense for all one"s expense and trouble in going for a season into this summer home or nature.
Being situated so far to the north the days of summer are very long while those of winter are extremely short. This is noticeable even in the southern part of the country, and as one goes farther north it is more and more striking until upon reaching the arctic circle the summer traveler has the unique experience of seeing the sun at midnight. It is visible for weeks or months at a time, according to whether one is near the circle or farther toward the pole. For corresponding periods during the winter seasons the sun does not appear at all. It should not be inferred that these sunless days are intensely dark and gloomy. On the contrary, they, as well as the midnight sun, have fascinations peculiar to themselves and are of deep interest, especially to the novice in that lat.i.tude. The glitter of the stars, the glow of the moon, and the palpitating brilliance of the northern lights, combine with the light reflected from the vast snow fields and compensate in part for the absence of the direct rays from the sun.
The industries and occupations of the Norwegians are dependent in large measure upon environing conditions. Nearly one-fourth of the country is covered with a heavy growth of timber; hence, lumbering affords a large part of the most profitable employment. Much of the mountainous land can be used only for pasturage and, as a result, dairying claims considerable attention. Only a very small portion of the area (about four per cent) is suitable for agriculture and owing to this limitation of opportunity, comparatively few of the people are farmers. Their numerous fisheries supply cargoes, and train loads of fresh and cured fish to the markets of the world. Fishing is, in fact, one of the most important industries, and a large percentage of the wage earners of the country engage in it. Since the bulk of their travel and transportation is by water, a great many become sailors. A certain amount of manufacturing also is done, and this provides another means of earning a livelihood. The fact that nearly all of the people are gathered into cities, towns, and settlements along the coast, is explained by a consideration of the activities and conditions herein set forth.
The people of Norway are large of stature, vigorous, and alert in mind and body. They have ever been undaunted in their efforts to overcome the great, natural barriers to progress and to secure what they believed would be for their well-being. Toiling patiently and persistently, suffering hardships on land and perils at sea, they have developed the well-known characteristics of their st.u.r.dy race. The long, rigorous winters taught the people to provide amply for the needs of the future, and they learned also the economy of making every endeavor count for permanency. It has been and is still their aim and intent to so direct their efforts that their citizens may experience and enjoy not only in the present the best conditions made possible by the world"s highest attainments, but that later generations also may reap valuable benefits therefrom. They realize that it is easily possible for today"s provisions to supply the best for the present, and at the same time to bless tomorrow and the next day and all the coming years.
The Norwegians are as democratic in mind and disposition as any people of the earth. They demand that the ma.s.ses shall receive whatever benefit may come from prosperity at home, from their relations with other nations, or from legislation. They advocate further that right now is the time to increase opportunities, to multiply privileges, to raise standards of living, and to insure through conservative action a substantial basis on which the coming generations may safely build. In accord with their aims and ideals they study the questions of education, labor and capital, and many others of vital interest to the people. They seek out sources, eliminating the undesirable and cultivating those of favorable growth and fruitage. Recognizing their own resourcefulness and ability, the Nors.e.m.e.n strive to gain for themselves and for their descendants material prosperity and true culture. To these ends they foster educational advantages for all, the development of the arts and sciences, and the elevation of labor.
Educationally, they have ever been desirous of providing the best possible advantages. During the latter part of the nineteenth century and the few years of the present one, they have been in a position to put into execution a number of advance ideas which they have done without hesitation. Being observant of what other nations provide they have been ready to select from various sources whatever good they found, to eliminate any undesirable features which revealed themselves, and to strengthen the weaker points. Though they have been forced by conditions to a.s.sume and maintain a conservative att.i.tude toward every new project or attempt at reform, they have been also too democratic to permit tradition or precedent to bind them down or to hinder them in making changes in their school system, which they were convinced by experience or study would be for their good. In harmony with this they have been eager to make revisions where necessary; to introduce new features, which had been tested at home or abroad and found successful; and to cast aside relics of the past, unnecessary phases of work, and those things which might be supplanted by materials of superior advantage or value to the people served. They have become habituated to examining the new from every conceivable viewpoint, to finding its foundations, to testing its values, and to weighing its effects. When a thing has been thoroughly studied it is accepted or rejected according to whether it is adjudged desirable or undesirable for their use under existing conditions. In their effort to answer the demands of the people and to supply their needs, schools have been established according to local requirements. That is to say, every community enjoys school advantages, and every child in the entire state is privileged to receive instruction for a certain number of weeks each year at the expense of the state. All children are required to attend the schools of the state at least twelve weeks each year for seven years, or to receive instruction elsewhere which is equivalent to the amount required. In the more populous places higher schools also are provided for those who desire to take advantage of the opportunities afforded in them.
II. DIFFERENTIATION OF SCHOOLS.
It was early recognized by the Norwegians that through the means of education, better than any other way, they could develop a people qualified to pursue the arts, to cultivate the sciences, to appreciate and enjoy the highest culture, and to maintain and develop their n.o.blest ideals of citizenship and richest conceptions of statehood. Having these objects in mind they endeavored to establish schools of instruction and training along every legitimate line. Beginning with the most essential they worked unceasingly, providing additional worthy kinds of instruction as rapidly as possible, until their efforts resulted in their present school system.
Perhaps the most important feature of their work was the establishment of primary schools, which furnish general education. These schools provide seven years of elementary instruction for children between the ages of seven and fourteen years, and are literally the people"s schools (_Folkeskoler_). The law requires that pupils must be regular in attendance, and that parents, who fail to have their children in school in harmony with the provisions of the law, be fined according to the seriousness and extent of the offense. It is further provided that these schools shall be in operation for at least twelve weeks in the year, and that this time may be extended according to local demands or needs. As a matter of fact, nearly all of them in the cities and many of them in the country operate forty weeks per year. As a consequence of liberal provisions and enforced regulations, Norway has achieved an eminent place educationally among the nations of the world.
In the rural sections primary schools are held in comfortable, well equipped, and conveniently located schoolhouses and are taught by competent teachers who live near by in homes provided for them. In a few remote, rugged sections of the country, where children are few and scattering or where locations accessible to all cannot be found, they have no fixed schools, but instead what are termed ambulatory schools (_Omgangskoler_). There are no schoolhouses in these districts but the officials designate certain houses[3] as the places where children go at stated times to receive instruction. The teacher meets the children of the neighborhood in a given home and teaches them for a specified time, pa.s.ses to the next designated place, and continues until his rounds are completed. Formerly, a very large number of these schools existed, but as roadways were extended or improved and the people became able to erect and maintain schoolhouses, the demand for ambulatory schools decreased until now nearly all of them are supplanted by fixed schools.
In 1837, ninety-two per cent of the children attending school in the country were taught in ambulatory schools, while in 1907 this was the case with less than one per cent of them.
In all the cities and towns excellent educational advantages are provided. Usually their school year consists of forty weeks of six days each. Every provision is made for the welfare of the children; excellent instructors are secured, and the equipment for teaching purposes is of the best procurable. Furthermore, no pains are spared in guarding the children from physical discomfort and immoral conditions or a.s.sociations.
Simultaneously with the development of the elementary schools secondary education moved along advance lines. In 1814, when Norway became an independent state there were but four of the higher cla.s.sical (_laerde_) schools within her borders. These were the historic cathedral schools (_Kathedralskoler_) which had been established for centuries. As time pa.s.sed, other secondary schools were organized. Higher education was reorganized in 1869 and again in 1896, when by act of the Storthing secondary education was made to include the middle school and the gymnasium. The enactment defines these schools and states their aim as follows: "The middle school is a school for children, which, in union with the primary school, gives its pupils a complete, thorough, general education, adapted to the receptivity of childhood. The gymnasium is a school for young people, which on the foundation of the middle school, leads on to a complete, higher, general education, which may also serve as a basis for scientific studies. Both middle school and gymnasium shall contribute to the religions and moral training of the pupils, and it should also be their common aim to develop the pupils both mentally and physically into competent young people."[4] The act requires that the middle school shall be no longer than four years, and that the gymnasial courses shall be of three years" duration.
The gymnasia of Norway take up the work where the middle schools leave off, and provide three years of instruction which concludes with the _examen artium_. The pa.s.sing of this examination ent.i.tles the individual to become a student in the university. Previous to the time of entering the gymnasium the subjects of instruction are uniform for all; here they branch into two or three lines, any one of which may be selected by the pupil and followed to its completion. The main divisions of the work are represented in the names of the courses--the _Real_ and the Linguistic-Historical. The latter of these is again divided in some schools, one of its two lines including Latin. The _Real_ course of instruction is largely scientific while the Linguistic-Historical, true to its name, embodies a large amount of language and history. In case the course including Latin is offered, Latin replaces some of the work in modern languages and history.
The middle school, then, is the second step in the educational ladder and builds upon the work previously done in the primary school. No middle school is privileged to include work lower down than the sixth grade. In other words, the primary schools are the only ones which are authorized to present the work of the first five grades or years of school instruction. The courses of study are so arranged that a child may pa.s.s from the primary school after completing the fifth grade and enter directly upon the studies in the regular four year course of the middle school. On the other hand a pupil may continue in the primary school until its completion--seven years--and then enter a middle school and finish its requirements in three years. While nearly all middle schools present a four year course there are a few which offer only three years of instruction. In order to enter these latter schools the child must have finished the seven years of instruction in the primary schools. Middle schools are under the inspection of state officials and a uniform standard of work is required of all of them. The middle school examination which marks the completion of the middle school course is exactly the same for all pupils in the state. In any given year all who take the examinations write on exactly the same questions on a specified hour of a certain day.
The Royal Frederik University, established by King Frederik in 1811, furnishes the summit of educational endeavor. Its five faculties--(1) theology, (2) law, (3) medicine, (4) mathematics and science, and (5) history and philosophy--represent the best products of the country and maintain standards of efficiency paralleling the achievements of the day. Besides the five faculties already mentioned there are (1) The Practical Theological Seminary for the training of ministers and (2) The Pedagogical Seminary (affiliated) for special training of teachers.
Through the endeavors of the faculties and seminaries enumerated, the necessary professions, scientific organizations, and philosophic societies are supplied with men of eminent qualifications. The state also is supplied from the same source with individuals capable of attending to the affairs of state in a dignified and competent manner.
To aid prospective teachers and to maintain high professional standards, Norway early established a Teachers" Seminary in each of its six dioceses (_Stifter_). Having made this ample provision for the training of teachers, they were in a position to require a certain amount of professional preparation of all candidates for appointment to teaching positions. Adherence to this laudable principle has saved the state from an overflow of incompetent instructors. While requirements were very low for a long time, the increasing supply of qualified candidates for positions warranted successive shiftings of them to higher and higher standards. At present, the teachers of Norway, as a body, rank among the best in educational equipment, professional training, and morality.
Technical, agricultural, military, and naval schools have been established in order to keep pace with the world"s developments along these lines. The technical school in Trondhjem opened in 1910, sets the requirements for admission as high as those at the university. Its work promises to be of unquestioned quality and its prospects are very bright. The students at this school come chiefly from the scientific course offered in the gymnasia or from the several preparatory technical schools of Norway. There are many of these lower technical schools doing excellent work and some of them are modeled after American schools. The work of the agricultural college and of the military and naval schools is more or less technical along their respective lines and meets certain requirements not elsewhere provided for. When one notes the variety of schools maintained by the Norwegian state, it is evident that it is the intent to provide for its citizens a very wide range of educational advantages, and at the same time to develop the capacities of young people until they are able to perform the offices of state and nation.