The Story of Norway.
by Hjalmar H. Boyesen.
PREFACE.
It has been my ambition for many years to write a history of Norway, chiefly because no such book, worthy of the name, exists in the English language. When the publishers of the present volume proposed to me to write the story of my native land, I therefore eagerly accepted their offer. The story, however, according to their plan, was to differ in some important respects from a regular history. It was to dwell particularly upon the dramatic phases of historical events, and concern itself but slightly with the growth of inst.i.tutions and sociological phenomena. It therefore necessarily takes small account of proportion.
In the present volume more s.p.a.ce is given to the national hero, Olaf Tryggvesson, whose brief reign was crowded with dramatic events, than to kings who reigned ten times as long. For the same reason the four centuries of the Union with Denmark are treated with comparative brevity. Many things happened, no doubt, during those centuries, but "there were few deeds." Moreover, the separate history of Norway, in the time of her degradation, has never proved an attractive theme to Norse historians, for which reason the period has been generally neglected.
The princ.i.p.al sources of which I have availed myself in the preparation of the present volume, are Snorre Sturla.s.son: _Norges Kongesagaer_ (Christiania, 1859, 2 vols.); P. A. Munch: _Det Norske Folks Historie_ (Christiania, 1852, 6 vols.); R. Keyser: _Efterladte Skrifter_ (Christiania, 1866, 2 vols.); _Samlede Afhandlinger_ (1868); J. E. Sars: _Udsigt over den Norske Historie_ (Christiania, 1877, 2 vols.); K.
Maurer: _Die Bekehrung des Norwegischen Stammes zum Christenthume_ (Munchen, 1856, 2 vols.), and _Die Entstehung des Islandischen Staates_ (Munchen, 1852); G. Vigfusson: _Sturlunga Saga_ (Oxford, 1878, 2 vols.); and _Um timatal i Islendinga sogum i fornold_ (contained in _Safn til sogu Islands_, 1855); G. Storm: _Snorre Sturla.s.son"s Historieskrivning_ (Kjobenhavn, 1878); C. F. Allen: _Haandbog i Faedrelandets Historie_ (Kjobenhavn, 1863); besides a large number of scattered articles in German and Scandinavian historical magazines. A question which has presented many difficulties is the spelling of proper names. To adopt in every instance the ancient Icelandic form would scarcely be practicable, because the names in their modernized forms are usually familiar and easy to p.r.o.nounce, while, in their Icelandic disguises, they are to English readers nearly unp.r.o.nounceable, and present a needlessly forbidding appearance. Where a name has no well-recognized English equivalent, I have therefore adopted the modern Norwegian form, which usually differs from the ancient, in having dropped a final letter. Thus Sigurdr (which with an English genitive would be Sigurdr"s) becomes in modern Norwegian Sigurd, Eirikr, Erik, etc. Those surnames, which are descriptive epithets, I have translated where they are easily translatable, thus writing Harold the Fairhaired, Haakon the Good, Olaf the Saint, etc. Absolute consistency would, however, give to some names a too c.u.mbrous look, as, for instance, Einar the Tw.a.n.ger of Thamb (Thamb being the name of his bow), and I have in such instances kept the Norse name (Thambarskelver).
It is a pleasant duty to acknowledge my indebtedness for valuable criticism to my friends, E. Munroe Smith, J.U.D., Adjunct Professor of History in Columbia College, and Hon. Rasmus B. Andersen, United States Minister to Denmark, without whose kindly aid in procuring books, maps, etc., the difficulties in the preparation of the present volume would have been much increased. I am also under obligation to Dr. W. H.
Carpenter, of Columbia College, and to the Norwegian artist, Mr. H. N.
Gausta, of La Crosse, Wis., who has kindly sent me two spirited original compositions, ill.u.s.trative of peasant-life in Norway.
HJALMAR H. BOYESEN.
COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK, April 15, 1886.
THE STORY OF NORWAY.
CHAPTER I.
WHO WERE THE NORs.e.m.e.n?
The Nors.e.m.e.n are a Germanic race, and belong, accordingly, to the great Aryan family. Their next of kin are the Swedes and Danes. Their original home was Asia, and probably that part of Asia which the ancients called Bactria, near the sources of the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes. Not only the Nors.e.m.e.n are supposed to have come from this region, but the ancestors of all the Aryan nations which now inhabit the greater portion of the civilized world. Among the first to leave this cradle of nations were the tribes which settled upon the eastern islands and peninsulas of the Mediterranean, and, under the name of h.e.l.lenes, developed, long before the Christian era, an art and a literature which are, in some respects, yet unrivalled. The early Italic tribes, from which sprung in time the world-empire of Rome, trace their descent from the same ancestry; as do also the Kelts, who in ancient times inhabited England, Ireland, and France; the Slavs who settled in the present Russia, Bohemia, and the northern Turkish provinces; and the Germans, who occupied the great central regions of the European continent. Among Asiatic nations, the Iranians inhabiting Persia, and the Hindoos in India, have Aryan blood.
It seems almost incredible that persons differing so widely in appearance, habits, and disposition, as, for instance, a Hindoo and an Englishman, should, if you go sufficiently far back, have the same ancestry. And yet there cannot be the slightest doubt that such is the case. The question, then, naturally arises: "If they were once alike, what can have made them so different?" And the answer is: "The climate, the soil, and the general character of the countries in which they settled."
The country from which the first Aryans emigrated was mountainous, with fertile valleys, and an even, temperate climate. There was no excessive heat to make men drowsy and indolent, nor excessive cold to stunt them in their growth and paralyze their energies. The earth did not, as in the tropics, produce a luxurious vegetation which would support the inhabitants without labor, but it offered sustenance to herds of cattle which, with the proper care, would supply the simple needs of primitive men. The race, thus situated, progressed physically as well as mentally, until it became superior to all the tribes inhabiting the neighboring regions. War followed, in which the weaker succ.u.mbed. The Aryans, increasing rapidly in numbers, took possession of the conquered territories, enslaved the indigenous population, or drove it back into localities where the conditions of life were less favorable. It is not positively known when the first migration on a large scale took place; but some scholars have supposed that the Hindoos separated from the parent race as early as 1500 B.C. The dates of the Greek, Italic, Keltic, and Slavic migrations are likewise uncertain, and the period which has been fixed upon for the Aryan occupation of Germany is also conjectural. The same uncertainty prevails regarding the earliest history of the Scandinavian tribes; although there is a strong probability that their invasion of the countries which they now inhabit must have taken place during the second century preceding the Christian era. It is not unlikely that they left their Asiatic home simultaneously with the Germans, with whom they were then almost, if not entirely, identical, and that their conquering hordes spread northward, subduing the Finns and Lapps, whom they found in possession of the land, partly exterminating them, partly forcing them up into the barren mountains of the extreme North. Among the tribes whose path of conquest was turned in this direction, the Goths (_Gauter_), the Swedes (_Svear_), and the Danes (_Daner_) were the most prominent, though several other names are mentioned, both by native and foreign authors. The name Norseman, or Northman, is not found among these, because it refers not to any of the Aryan tribes, but is solely derived from the country in which they settled. Their country soon became known as Norway (Noregr or Norvegr), _i. e._, the Northern Way. It is the long strip of territory extending north and south between the mountain chain Kjolen, which separates it from Sweden and the Arctic and Atlantic oceans. It looks on the map like a big bag slung across the shoulders of Sweden.
It is a wonderful country--this land of the Nors.e.m.e.n. The ocean roars along its rock-bound coast, and during the long, dark winter the storms howl and rage, and hurl the waves in white showers of spray against the sky. Great swarms of sea-birds drift like snow over the waters, and circle screaming around the lonely cliffs. The aurora borealis flashes like a huge shining fan over the northern heavens, and the stars glitter with a keen frosty splendor. But in the summer all this is changed, suddenly, as by a miracle. Then the sun shines warmly, even within the polar circle; innumerable wild flowers sprout forth, the swelling rivers dance singing to the sea, and the birches mingle their light-green foliage with the darker needles of the pines. In the northern districts it is light throughout the night, even during the few hours while the sun dips beneath the horizon; the ocean spreads like a great burnished mirror under the cloudless sky, the fishes leap, and the gulls and eider-ducks rock tranquilly upon the shining waters. All along the coast there are excellent harbors, which are free of ice both winter and summer. A mult.i.tude of islands, some rocky and barren, others covered with a scant growth of gra.s.s and trees, afford hiding-places for ships and pasturage for cattle. Moreover, long arms of the ocean--the so-called fiords--penetrate far into the country, and being filled with water from the gulf-stream which strikes the western coast of Norway, tend greatly to moderate the climate. About the sh.o.r.es of these fiords narrow strips of arable land stretch themselves, with many interruptions, along the edge of the water, and here the early Germanic settlers built their houses and began their fight for existence. Behind them and before them the great snow-hooded mountains rose threateningly, sending down upon them avalanches, floods, and sudden whirlwinds. But, nothing daunted, they clung to the soil, explored the land and the sea, and selected the most favorable sites for their permanent dwellings.
[Ill.u.s.tration: STONE AXES FROM THE LATER STONE AGE.]
It is tolerably certain that the Aryan settlers in Norway knew at that time very little of agriculture, but made their living by hunting, fishing, and cattle-raising. The huts which they built of logs were rude contrivances which could be easily torn down and moved. But, as at a very early period, they began to devote themselves more to the culture of the ground, their dwellings were made larger, and were built with greater care. When a horde of warriors invaded a valley their first task was to clear away the forests which grew dense and dark up over the mountain sides. Their chieftain then built a _hov_ or temple for the G.o.ds, where sacrifices were made at certain stated times. Whether it was the chieftain"s task to allot to each his share of land, or whether each one chose according to his own preference, is not known, but the former is the more probable; for the Nors.e.m.e.n, proud and pugnacious as they were, subordinated themselves, in historic times, readily to their local chiefs, and accorded them great honor. This sense of kinship within the tribe and willing recognition of authority was the more important in Norway, because the character of the ground there compelled the people to live far apart on scattered _gaards_ or farms, between which communication was often difficult. It would therefore have been easy for the _bonder_ or peasants to forget all public concerns and gradually to lapse into isolation and savagery. But here their Germanic nature, which had in it the germs of social progress, a.s.serted itself. As the centuries pa.s.sed the people were bound more strongly together by common pursuits and common interests. First of all, their religious observances brought them together, then the necessity of defence against external enemies. Life and property were in those days insecure possessions, and it was only by acting in concert, under the leadership of a valiant chief, that the scattered peasants could hope to preserve either. Men had then fiercer and more inflammable pa.s.sions than they have now, and only fear of retaliation could teach them self-restraint.
[Ill.u.s.tration: STONE HAMMER.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: STONE USED FOR SHAPING IMPLEMENTS.]
It happened in this way that almost every separate valley in Norway became a little kingdom by itself. Such a diminutive kingdom was called a _fylki_. There was not always a king, but a chief there was always, and sometimes more than one. To the king belonged the leadership in war.
He was in some district called a _jarl_ or earl, though this name came in later times to mean not an independent ruler, but rather a land-grave, a royal governor. The king could not tax the peasants for his support, nor impose any burden upon them which they did not of their own free choice accept. As a rule, his dignity was inherited by his son, though the people were at liberty, in case they disapproved of the heir, to select another. This right was repeatedly exercised in historic times, both in Sweden and Norway. Sometimes, when the crops failed or bad weather destroyed their herds, the peasants sacrificed their king to their G.o.ds. All public misfortunes they interpreted as a sign that the G.o.ds were angry, and craved b.l.o.o.d.y atonement. If the crops were good it was evident that their king was in favor with the G.o.ds.
[Ill.u.s.tration: STONE KNIFE.]
It thus appears that the royal dignity among the early Nors.e.m.e.n was burdened with unpleasant responsibilities. It involved more duties than privileges, for, besides commanding in war, the king had also to conduct the public sacrifices at the great pagan festivals. He was thus priest as well as king. In fact, as before stated, he built the _hov_ or temple himself, and it was chiefly his ownership of this, which raised him to a dignity superior to that of other chieftains. It was by dint of this same authority that he acted as judge at the _fylkis thing_, or popular a.s.sembly, where all freeman met to consult concerning public and private affairs. The _fylkis thing_ was neither a parliament nor a court of law, but both combined. Private quarrels were settled, blood-wites or fines agreed upon for homicides and other injuries, and resolutions taken concerning peace and war. It was not a representative a.s.sembly, the members of which were elected by vote, but rather a county meeting (_shiremote_) where every man who could bear arms had a right to make himself heard. You would scarcely wonder that where so many fierce and turbulent warriors were gathered, breaches of the peace were frequent.
But when swords were drawn, it was impossible to judge and deliberate.
Therefore the _fylkis thing_ was hallowed, and to break the peace of the _thing_ was regarded as the greatest of crimes. If a man killed another, and publicly proclaimed himself his slayer, the crime could be atoned for by money (blood-wite) paid to the nearest surviving relative of the dead man. If the relatives accepted the blood-wite, they were not at liberty to seek revenge. But in ancient times it was regarded as more honorable to refuse the money and resort to the sword. If a man slew another secretly and denied the crime he was held to be a murderer, and could not offer blood-wite. He was then outlawed, and every man who saw him was at liberty to slay him.
[Ill.u.s.tration: ADZE OF ELK-HORN.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: STONE WEDGE.]
[Ill.u.s.tration: ROCK PICTURE OF A SHIP AT LOKEBERG IN BOHUSLEN.]
Such were the Nors.e.m.e.n during the first centuries after their settlement in their present home. In spite of their violence and p.r.o.neness to bloodshed, you will yet admit that they had many traits which were admirable. They could recognize authority, and yet preserve their st.u.r.dy sense of independence. Simple and imperfect as their _fylkis things_ were, they suffice to show an apt.i.tude for self-government, and a recognition of the people itself, as the source of authority. These tall blonde men with their defiant blue eyes, who obeyed their kings while they had confidence in them, and killed them when they had forfeited their respect, were the ancestors of the Normans who under William the Conqueror invaded England, and founded the only European state which has since reached the highest civilization and the highest liberty, through slow and even stages of orderly development.
[Ill.u.s.tration: ROCK PICTURE AT BORGEN IN SMAALENENE.]
[Ill.u.s.tration]
[Ill.u.s.tration]
CHAPTER II.
THE RELIGION OF THE NORs.e.m.e.n.
The Icelander Snorre Sturla.s.son wrote in the thirteenth century a very remarkable book, called the Heimskringla, or the Sagas of the Kings of Norway. In this book he says that Odin, the highest G.o.d of the Nors.e.m.e.n, was the chief who first led the Germanic tribes into Europe. He was a great warrior and was always victorious. Therefore, when he was dead, the people made sacrifices to him and prayed to him for victory. They did not believe, however, that he was actually dead, but that he had returned to his old home in Asia, whence he still watched their fortunes and occasionally visited them in person. Many tales are told in the sagas of people who had seen Odin, particularly when a great battle was to be fought. He was represented as a tall, bearded man with one eye, and clad as a warrior. He had two brothers, Vile and Ve, and many sons and daughters who were worshipped like him and became G.o.ds and G.o.ddesses. Odin and his children were called _Aesir_, which Snorre says means Asia-men; and their home _Asgard_, or _Asaheim_, likewise indicates their Asiatic origin. During their migrations the _Aesir_ came in contact with another people, called the _Vanir_, with whom, after an indecisive battle, they formed an alliance. The _Vanir_ then made common cause with the _Aesir_ and were worshipped like them.
[Ill.u.s.tration: BRONZE SWORD. (Vestergotland in Sweden.)]
Whether there is any basis of truth in this tradition, is difficult to determine. We know that primitive nations usually make G.o.ds of their early kings and chieftains, and worship them after death. Every year that pa.s.ses makes them look greater and more mysterious. In storms and earthquakes, in thunder and lightning, they hear their voices and see the manifestations of their power. More and more they become identified with the elements which they are supposed to rule; the mighty attributes of the sun, the sky, and the sea are given to them, and to each is allotted his particular sphere of action. The chieftain who has been a valiant warrior in his life-time is supposed to give victory to those who call upon him. He who has excelled in the arts of peace continues to rule over the seasons, and to give good crops and prosperity to those who, by sacrifices, secure his good-will. This may have been the origin of the Scandinavian G.o.ds; although many scholars maintain that they were from the beginning personifications of the elements, and have never had an actual existence on earth. But whether they were originally men or sun-myths, interesting legends have been told about them which may be worth recounting.
[Ill.u.s.tration: LOOR OR WAR HORN OF BRONZE. (Skaane.)]
In the beginning of time there were two worlds, Muspelheim, the world of fire, whose king was Surtur, and Niflheim, the world of frost and darkness. In Niflheim was the spring Hvergelmer, where dwelt the terrible dragon Nidhogger. Between these two worlds was the yawning chasm Ginnungagap. The spring Hvergelmer sent forth twelve icy rivers, which were called the Elivagar. These gradually filled up the chasm Ginnungagap. As the wild waters rushed into the abyss, they froze and were again thawed by the sparks that were blown from the fiery Muspelheim. The frozen vapors fell as h.o.a.r-frost, and the heat imparted life to them. They took shape and fashioned themselves into the Yotun or giant Ymer, from whom descends the evil race of frost-giants.
Simultaneously with Ymer the cow Audhumbla came into being. She licked the briny h.o.a.r-frost, and a mighty being appeared with the shape of a man. He was large and beautiful, and was named Bure. His son was Bor, who married the daughter of a Yotun, and got three sons, Odin, Vile, and Ve. These three brothers slew the Yotun Ymer, and in his blood all the race of Yotuns was drowned except one couple, from whom a new race of giants descended. Then Odin and his brothers dragged the huge body of Ymer into the middle of Ginnungagap, and fashioned from it the world.
Out of the flesh they made the earth, the bones became stones and lofty mountains, and his blood the sea. From his hair they made the trees, and from his skull the great vault of the sky. His brain they scattered in the air, where its fragments yet float about in queer, fantastic shapes, and are called clouds. The flying sparks from Muspelheim they gathered up and fashioned them into sun, moon, and stars, which they flung up against the blue vault of the sky. Then they arranged land and water so that the ocean flowed round about the entire earth, and beyond the watery waste they fixed the abode of the Yotuns. This cold and barren realm beyond the sea is therefore called Utgard or Yotunheim. From the earth to the sky they suspended a bridge of many colors, which they named Bifrost or the rainbow. The Yotun woman Night married Delling (the Dawn) and became the mother of Day, who rode in his shining chariot across the sky, always followed by his dark mother. The latter drove a huge black horse named Hrimfaxe, from whose foamy bit dropped the dew that refreshed the gra.s.s during the hours of darkness, while Day"s horse, Skinfaxe, spread from his radiant mane the glorious light over the earth. It is further told that the heat bred in Ymer"s body a mult.i.tude of maggots, which a.s.sumed the shapes of tiny men and were called gnomes or dwarves. They live in caves and mountains, and know of all the treasures of gold and silver and precious stones in the secret chambers of the rocks. They also have great skill in the working of metals, but they cannot endure the light of the sun. Last of all man was created. One day when the three G.o.ds, Odin, Honer, and Lodur were walking on the sh.o.r.es of the sea they found two trees, and from these they made a man and a woman, named Ask and Embla (ash and elm). Odin gave them the breath of life, Honer, speech and reason, Lodur, blood and fair complexions.
[Ill.u.s.tration: BRONZE SWORD. (Sandherred.)]
The old Nors.e.m.e.n conceived of the world as an enormous ash tree, named Ygdrasil, the three roots of which extend, one to the G.o.ds in Asgard, another to Yotunheim, the third to Niflheim. On the third gnaws continually the dragon Nidhogger. In the top of the tree sits an eagle; among the branches four stags are running; and up and down on the trunk frisks a squirrel who carries slander and endeavors to make mischief between the eagle and the dragon. Under the root which stretches to Yotunheim is the fountain of the wise Yotun Mimer, to whom Odin gave one of his eyes in return for a draught from his fountain. For whoever drank from its water became instantly wise. Under the second root of the ash, which draws its nourishment from heaven, is the sacred fountain of Urd, whither the G.o.ds ride daily over the bridge Bifrost. Here they meet the three Norns--Urd, Verdande, and Skuld (Past, Present, and Future), the august G.o.ddesses of Fate, whose decrees not even the G.o.ds are able to change. The Norns pour the water of the fountain over Ygdrasil"s root, and thereby keep the world-tree alive. They govern the fates of G.o.ds and men, giving life or death to whomever they please.
[Ill.u.s.tration: BUCKLE FROM THE EARLY IRON AGE. FOUND AT HETLAND IN STAVANGER AMT.]
Odin dwells with all the other G.o.ds in Asgard, where he receives in his shining hall Valhalla all those who have died by the sword. He is therefore called Valfather, and those fallen warriors whom he chooses to be his guests, are known as _einheriar_, _i. e._, great champions.