_Ans._ Ovidius Naso was born in the year 43, B. C., at Sulmo (now Sulmona), a town about ninety miles distant from Rome. The date of his birth is rendered memorable in history by the murder of the great Cicero. Ovid belonged to an equestrian family; he was educated at Rome, and enjoyed every advantage that splendid capital afforded. He showed his taste for poetry at an early age, but was dissuaded from cultivating this art by his father, who wished him to apply exclusively to the study of eloquence. Ovid gained some distinction as an orator; but when the death of his elder brother left him sole heir to an ample fortune, his natural inclination prevailed, and he gave himself up to literary pursuits. A career of unexampled prosperity was now opened to the poet. He enjoyed the favor of Augustus, and the friendship of the most distinguished men in Rome; his verses were universally admired, they were sung in the streets and at entertainments, or were recited in the theatre amid bursts of applause. Ovid was not content with the n.o.bler pleasures of fame and friendship, but plunged without restraint into all the vices and follies of which the Roman capital was the centre. This career of prosperity and pleasure was brought suddenly to a close. Ovid was banished by Augustus to Tomi, (now Temiswar) on the sh.o.r.es of the Euxine.
The decree was executed with the utmost severity. But one wretched night was allowed to the poet to deplore his fate, and take leave of his friends. His wife begged in vain to be allowed to accompany her husband in his exile. It is not known by what crime the unfortunate poet merited so severe a punishment. The immoral tendency of some of his poems, was the ostensible reason set forth by the emperor; but these verses had been written many years before. It is evident, therefore, that he must have offended Augustus in some manner which the latter did not choose to make public. Ovid wrote, in his exile, poems appropriately named "Tristia," in which he bewails his hard fate, and describes the scenes by which he was surrounded. From the severity of the climate, and the inroads of the barbarians, the fields were without grain, the hills without vines; no stately oaks clothed the mountain-side, no willows drooped along the banks; a scanty growth of wormwood alone covered the desolate plains. Spring brought with it neither birds nor flowers. In Summer, the sun was obscured by clouds; the Autumn shed no fruits, but through every season of the year, the wintry winds blew with prodigious violence, and lashed the waves of the boisterous Euxine on its desert sh.o.r.e. The only animated object was the wild Sarmatian driving his car, yoked with oxen, across the icy waste, himself wrapped in furs, his s.h.a.ggy hair and beard sparkling with the h.o.a.r frost and flakes of snow. Such was the abode for which the poet was compelled to exchange the theatres, the porticoes and gardens of Rome, the court of Augustus, and the sunny skies of Italy. He died in the ninth year of his exile, and the sixty-first of his age.
The poems of Ovid, however beautiful otherwise, are all more or less objectionable on account of their immoral tendency; the corruption of the author"s private character has left its impress on all his works.
The claim of Ovid to be numbered among the poets of mythology, rests chiefly on his Metamorphoses. This is a collection of legends of all the transformations said to have taken place in heathen mythology, beginning with the earliest times, and closing with the changing of Julius Csar into a star. The stories are not themselves original; they are princ.i.p.ally Greek and Oriental fictions, interspersed, perhaps, with a few Latin or Etruscan fables. There are, in all, two hundred and fifty of these stories. Ovid was engaged in correcting this, his greatest work, when he was surprised by the sentence of banishment. In a fit of impatience and despair, he threw it into the flames. Some of his friends possessed copies, and the poem was thus preserved.
If the Metamorphoses had been destroyed by this rash act, we would have lost many interesting fables which have been rendered immortal by the beauty of Ovid"s verse and his graceful fancy.
The Tristia are not so generally admired. They turn princ.i.p.ally on the poet"s personal misfortunes; and this subject, however absorbing to himself, soon becomes wearisome to the reader. Ovid composed a poem in the harsh dialect spoken by the Get who dwelt on the borders of the Euxine Sea. The barbarians listened with delight to his recitations, until their anger was excited by his constant complaints of their rude manners and inhospitable climate.
CHAPTER x.x.xIV.
Heroes Celebrated by the Poets.
AGAMEMNON.
_Ques._ Who was Agamemnon?
_Ans._ He was king of Mycen, and commander-in-chief of the Grecian forces during the siege of Troy. The combined fleet was detained for a long time at Aulis, owing to the wrath of Diana, whom Agamemnon had offended by killing one of her favorite deer. Calchas, the soothsayer, was consulted; he declared that the G.o.ddess could only be appeased by the sacrifice of Iphigenia, the oldest daughter of the monarch. She was accordingly led to the altar, but Diana was moved with pity, and carried the maiden with her to Tauris, leaving a hind in her place.
The quarrel of Agamemnon with Achilles, and the troubles that resulted, form the princ.i.p.al subject of Homer"s Iliad. In the division of captives, after the taking of Troy, Ca.s.sandra, one of the daughters of Priam, fell to the lot of Agamemnon. This princess had been endowed by Apollo with the gift of prophecy, but as she refused afterwards to listen to the suit of that G.o.d, he decreed that no one should attach any credit to her predictions. It was so in the present instance.
Clytemnestra, the queen of Agamemnon, believing, and perhaps hoping, that her husband would not return, had given a promise of marriage to gisthus, who already considered himself king of Mycen. Ca.s.sandra warned Agamemnon against returning thither, but her prediction was disregarded. Agamemnon was a.s.sa.s.sinated immediately on his arrival at Mycen; according to the tragic poets, it was Clytemnestra who dealt the fatal blow.
ACHILLES.
_Ques._ Who was Achilles?
_Ans._ He was the son of Peleus, king of Phthiotis in Thessaly; his mother was Thetis, a sea-G.o.ddess. Many incredible stories are told concerning the manner in which the hero was nursed in his infancy.
According to one account, his mother designed to make him immortal, and for that purpose anointed him with ambrosia during the day, and laid him in the fire at night. The fears of Peleus interrupted this strange treatment, and Achilles remained subject to death. Calchas had declared that Troy could not be taken without his aid, and Thetis, who was aware that her son was destined to perish if he joined the expedition, disguised him in female attire, and concealed him among the daughters of King Lycomedes. Ulysses was sent to discover his retreat, which he effected by the following stratagem. Attired as a travelling merchant, he presented himself at court, and displayed before the queen and her maidens, various articles of female attire.
Some pieces of armor were disposed among the merchandise; by the order of Ulysses, a trumpet was suddenly blown, when the disguised Achilles betrayed himself by seizing the armor. The young warrior was then obliged to join the expedition. During the siege, Achilles had a dispute with Agamemnon, concerning some female captives; considering himself wronged, he withdrew from the contest, and no entreaties could induce him to return to the field. The death of his friend Patroclus, who fell by the hand of Hector, at length aroused him to action.
Achilles" armor, which he had lent to Patroclus, had become the spoil of Hector, and it was upon this occasion that Vulcan fabricated for the hero, the famous suit which is described in the Iliad. Arrayed in this Achilles performed prodigies of valor, and at length killed Hector, after a desperate combat. According to Homer, Achilles took an ign.o.ble revenge on the dead body of his foe, which he dragged at his chariot-wheels, three times around the tomb of Patroclus. The corpse of the Trojan hero was yielded at last, to the tears and supplications of Priam, and a truce was granted to the Trojans, for the performance of the funeral rites. Achilles was himself slain soon after; his ashes were mingled in a golden urn with those of Patroclus, and a tomb was erected to both heroes, on the promontory of Sigum.
The vindictive spirit of Achilles knew no repose, even in death.
After the fall of Troy, his ghost appeared to the Greeks, and commanded them, with fearful menaces in case of refusal, to sacrifice on his tomb, Polyxena, one of the daughters of Priam. The unhappy maiden was torn from her mother"s arms, and immolated by Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. Hecuba learned soon after the sad fate of her son Polydorus. This young prince, who had been commended by Priam to the care of Polymnestor, king of Thrace, was treacherously murdered by that monarch. The bereaved mother planned a terrible revenge.
Promising disclosures with regard to hidden treasures, she induced Polymnestor and his children to visit her in secret. Then, aided by her fellow captives, Hecuba murdered the young princes and put out the father"s eyes. While endeavoring to escape from the vengeance of the Thracians, she was suddenly transformed into a dog.
CHAPTER x.x.xV.
ULYSSES.
_Ques._ Who was Ulysses?
_Ans._ He was king of Ithaca, and had been, like many other princes of Greece, a suitor of the beautiful Helen. Believing that he had no hope for success among so many compet.i.tors, Ulysses asked the hand of Penelope, daughter of Icarus. His suit was granted; but when he was about to depart with his bride, Icarus was so much grieved, that he tried to persuade Penelope to remain with him, and not accompany her husband to Ithaca. Ulysses bade her act according to her inclination, saying that she was free to remain, if such was her desire. Penelope made no reply, but dropped her veil over her face. Icarus urged her no longer, and when she was gone, he erected a statue to Modesty, on the spot where they parted. When the Grecian princes were called upon to revenge the abduction of Helen, Ulysses was unwilling to leave his peaceful kingdom, and sacrifice the happiness he enjoyed in the company of Penelope. Hearing that Palamedes had come to summon him to the field, he pretended to be insane. He yoked a horse and a bull together, and began ploughing the sands of the sea-sh.o.r.e, sowing salt instead of grain. Palamedes caused Telemachus, the infant son of Ulysses, to be laid before the plough, and the manner in which the father hastened to remove the child, convinced every one that his insanity was feigned. He was obliged, therefore, to join the expedition against Troy, but he never forgave Palamedes for having exposed his stratagem. The manner in which Ulysses revenged himself is not calculated to give us a very high opinion of the hero. During the siege, he brought forward a false accusation against Palamedes, which he supported so well, that the latter was condemned, and put to death.
Ulysses distinguished himself during the war, by his wisdom and prudence in council, and his courage on the field of battle. We have already spoken of the part which he took in carrying off the Palladium of Troy. As a reward for his services, he received the armor of Achilles, which Ajax had disputed with him.
After the fall of Troy, Ulysses embarked with the intention of returning to Greece, but he met with so many extraordinary adventures, that it was only after ten years of peril and hardships, that he was permitted to land upon the sh.o.r.es of Ithaca.
The Odyssey, the second of the two great poems attributed to Homer, is a history of the wanderings of Ulysses. After some adventures of minor importance, the ships of the hero were overtaken by a storm which drove them southward for nine days, and as many nights, until they reached the country of the Lotus-eaters. When the tempest abated, Ulysses sent some of his companions on sh.o.r.e. They were kindly entertained by the Lotus-eaters, who regaled them with their own favorite food, the lotus plant. This was of such a nature, that all who partook of it forgot home and friends, and were filled with a sort of indolent contentment, so that they had no other desire than to remain always in that country. Ulysses was obliged to have these men dragged away by force, and even then, it was necessary to bind them with ropes to the benches of the ship.
The escape of Ulysses from the cavern of the Cyclops and from the enchantments of Circe has been already related. After pa.s.sing safely between Scylla and Charybdis, Ulysses landed in the island of Thrinakia, where the cattle of Hyperion (the Sun) fed in verdant pastures. Circe had warned the voyagers that these flocks should be held inviolate, however pressing their wants might be. They were detained a long time at Thrinakia by contrary winds; and Ulysses bound his companions by an oath that they would not touch the sacred herds. They were, however, so pressed by famine that they ventured one day, in the absence of Ulysses, to slay a number of the sacred cattle; vainly endeavoring to propitiate the offended G.o.d, by offering a portion in sacrifice. Ulysses returning to the sh.o.r.e, was struck with horror at their temerity, the more so on account of the fearful signs which followed. The skins crept on the ground, and the joints of meat lowed on the spits while roasting.
As the wind was now favorable, Ulysses hastened to fly from the fatal island. The vengeance of the G.o.d pursued them on the sea, and a terrible storm arose, in which all perished, except Ulysses himself, who was spared as having taken no part in the sacrilege. He formed a raft from the fragments of his ship, and was at length cast by the waves upon the island of the nymph Calypso. This G.o.ddess entertained Ulysses with much kindness, and even offered to share her immortality with the hero, if he would consent to forget Ithaca and dwell forever in her happy island. Jupiter, however, sent Mercury to Calypso, with the command that she should dismiss Ulysses, and provide him with all that was necessary for his homeward voyage.
The G.o.ddess reluctantly obeyed; a raft was constructed and furnished, and Ulysses departed from the island. He sped prosperously for some days, and was almost within sight of land, when a violent storm arose, in which he would have perished had he not been aided by a compa.s.sionate sea nymph; Minerva, also, smoothed the billows before him, and he swam safely to land.
The Phacians, on whose sh.o.r.es he had been cast, received him kindly, and fitted out a ship in which he sailed for Ithaca. Ulysses was asleep when the vessel touched the strand. The Phacians carried him on sh.o.r.e without awaking him, and placed near him a chest filled with costly gifts, after which they sailed away. Neptune was so much displeased with the Phacians for aiding Ulysses, that, as their vessel was returning to port, he transformed it into a rock, which continued ever after to obstruct the mouth of their harbor.
The arrival of the hero could not have occurred more opportunely for the deliverance of his wife, the faithful Penelope. When a long time had elapsed after the fall of Troy, and no tidings were received of Ulysses, it was generally believed that he had perished. More than a hundred n.o.bles of Ithaca and the surrounding islands, became suitors for the hand of Penelope; she however still cherished the hope of her husband"s return, and refused to entertain any proposal of marriage.
The suitors nevertheless persisted; they remained in the palace, which they filled with riot and feasting, and continually urged Penelope to choose a husband from among their number. She promised, at length, that she would do so when she had completed a certain web of embroidery on which she was engaged. They agreed to wait, and Penelope deceived them for a long time, plying her needle diligently during the day, and undoing the greater part of her work at night.
This device succeeded for three years, at the end of which time the suitors became so importunate that Penelope could no longer resist.
She promised, therefore, that she would marry that man who should send an arrow from the bow of Ulysses, through twelve rings suspended in a line. The conditions were accepted: and it was on the very eve of the day appointed for the contest, that Ulysses landed in Ithaca. It was necessary to conceal his return; for this purpose the hero disguised himself as a beggar, and by the aid of Minerva, so changed his whole appearance that it was impossible for any one to recognize him. In this character he was kindly received by Eumus, a swine-herd, from whom he learned all that had transpired, and the present distress of Penelope.
Telemachus, the son of Ulysses, had been absent for a long time in search of his father. He had visited the courts of the other kings who had taken part in the Trojan war, but without obtaining any certain tidings. While still engaged in this quest, Minerva bade him return to Ithaca; he obeyed, and the G.o.ddess contrived that he should arrive on the same day with his father, and meet him in the hut of Eumus. After mutual explanations, and affectionate greetings, the two heroes consulted as to what measures they should take for the punishment of the suitors, and the deliverance of Penelope. It was resolved that Telemachus should proceed to the palace, and mingle with the suitors, as formerly; that Ulysses should also go, but in the disguise of a beggar. Such persons were often admitted, in ancient times, to the halls of chieftains and princes, where they entertained the guests with stories of their wanderings, and were regaled with a portion of the viands. On their arrival at the palace, they found the usual scene of riot and festivity. The suitors received Telemachus with affected joy, although secretly mortified at the failure of their plots against him. As Ulysses entered, a dog which lay in the court, half dead with age, raised his head in sudden recognition, fawned upon his old master, and expired. It was Argus, whom Ulysses had often led to the chase.
The banquet proceeded, but Telemachus had much difficulty in dissembling his feelings when the suitors made his father a subject of mockery; and one of them carried his insolence so far as to strike the disguised hero. At length, the time arrived for the contest of skill which was to decide the fate of Penelope. Twelve rings were suspended at equal distances, and Telemachus brought from the armory the mighty bow of Ulysses, with its quiver of arrows; taking care, at the same time, to remove all other weapons from the hall.
The first thing to be done, was to bend the bow, in order to attach the string. This Telemachus tried to do, and was obliged to confess that his strength was unequal to the effort. He pa.s.sed the bow to one of the suitors, who was compelled to yield it in turn, amid the raillery of his companions. When several had failed in the same manner, Ulysses begged that he might be allowed to try his skill. The request was received with shouts of derision, and some would have driven the insolent beggar from the hall. Telemachus interfered, and remarking, with affected indifference, that they might as well gratify the old man, bade him try. Ulysses took the bow, and the suitors were amazed to see him handle the mighty weapon as if it had been a plaything. Their surprise was still greater, when, having adjusted the cord, and chosen an arrow from the quiver, he took such steady aim that the arrow sped unerringly through all the rings; he then exclaimed, "Now for another mark!" and aimed a second shaft at the most insolent of the suitors. He fell dead, and as the others rushed forward, Telemachus placed himself by his father"s side, with Eumus and other armed retainers. The suitors, deprived of their weapons, and terrified at the aspect of the injured prince, whom they recognized too late, turned to fly, but Eumus secured the doors. A desperate struggle ensued, in which all were slain, and Ulysses was left master of his palace and his kingdom. The Odyssey concludes with a description of the rejoicings which followed, and the happiness enjoyed by Ulysses and Penelope after their long separation.
CHAPTER x.x.xVI.
ORESTES.
_Ques._ Who was Orestes?
_Ans._ He was the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. At the time of his father"s a.s.sa.s.sination, Orestes, then a child, was saved by his sister Electra, who sent him secretly to their uncle Strophius, king of Phocis. Here he formed a friendship with Pylades, the son of that monarch, which was so true and constant that it pa.s.sed into a proverb.
Orestes was urged by messages from his sister Electra, to avenge the murder of his father, and her counsels were confirmed by the responses of the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. Orestes, accompanied by his friend Pylades, repaired in disguise to Mycen. Here he announced himself to Clytemnestra as a messenger from Strophius, bringing news of the death of her son Orestes. The guilty queen feigned to grieve at these tidings, but gisthus made no effort to conceal his satisfaction.
Orestes was now seized with horror at the thought of the deed which he was about to commit, but the reproaches of Electra, and the remembrance of his father"s cruel fate, banished every thought of pity, and he slew Clytemnestra and gisthus with his own hand. This act, however justified by the guilt of Clytemnestra, and the express command of the G.o.ds, was abhorrent to nature, and could not pa.s.s unavenged. Orestes was pursued by the Furies, and wandered frantic and despairing from land to land, always accompanied by the faithful Pylades.
The oracle of Apollo was consulted, and the Pythia declared that Orestes would not be delivered until he had visited the Tauric Chersonesus, and brought from thence to Argos, a certain statue of Diana, from the temple of that G.o.ddess. It was the custom at Tauris, to sacrifice all strangers at the altar of Diana; Orestes and Pylades were accordingly seized on their arrival, and carried as victims to the temple. The officiating priestess was no other than Iphigenia, the sister of Orestes, whom Diana had saved when she was about to be immolated at Aulis. Perceiving that the strangers were Greeks, she offered to spare the life of one, on condition that he would be the bearer of a letter to Greece.
This proposal gave rise to a memorable contest of friendship, each desiring to sacrifice himself for the other. Pylades at length yielded to Orestes, and consented to take the letter. His surprise was great on perceiving that it was addressed to Orestes himself; an explanation followed, and Iphigenia resolved to fly from Tauris with her brother. Their plans were so well laid, that they not only succeeded in escaping un.o.bserved, but were also enabled to carry off the statue of Diana, which they brought to Argos.
Orestes reigned many years in Mycen, and was married to his cousin Hermione, daughter of Menelaus and Helen. Pylades married Electra, the sister of his friend.