The mediaevalists believed themselves surrounded everywhere by spiritual beings; but unlike the ancients, they were convinced not so much that they were the peculiar care of heaven as that they were the miserable victims of h.e.l.lish malice, ever seeking their temporal as well as eternal destruction; a fact apparent in the whole mediaeval literature and art.[80]
[80] Sismondi (_Literature of the South of Europe_) has observed of the greatest epic of the Middle Age, that "Dante, in common with many fathers of the Church, under the supposition that paganism, in the persons of the infernal G.o.ds, represented the fallen angels, has made no scruple to adopt its fables." Ta.s.so, at a later period, introduces the deities of heathendom. In the _Gerusalemme Liberata_ they sit in council to frustrate the plans and destroy the forces of the Christian leaders before Jerusalem (iv). Ismeno, a powerful magician in the ranks of the Turks, brings up a host of diabolic allies to guard the wood which supplied the infidels with materials for carrying on the siege of the city (xiii.). And the masterpieces of art of Guido or Raffaelle, which excite at once admiration and despair in their modern disciples, consecrated and immortalised the vulgar superst.i.tion.
Glanvil"s conjectures on the cause of the _comparative_ rarity of demoniac and other spiritual apparitions in general may interest the credulous or curious reader. "Tis very probable," reasons the Doctor, "that the state wherein they are will not easily permit palpable intercourses between the bad genii and mankind: since "tis like enough their own laws and government do not allow their frequent excursions into the world. Or it may with great probability be supposed that "tis a very hard and painful thing for them to force their thin and _tenuious_ bodies into a visible consistence, and such shapes as are necessary for their designs in their correspondence with witches. For in this action their bodies must needs be exceedingly compressed, which cannot well be without a painful sense. And this is, perhaps, a reason why there are so few apparitions, and why appearing spirits are commonly in such a hurry to be gone, viz. that they may be delivered of the unnatural pressure of their tender vehicles,[81] which I confess holds more in the apparition of good than evil spirits ... the reason of which probably is the greater subtlety and tenuity of the former, which will require far greater degrees of compression and consequently of pain to make them visible; whereas the latter are feculent and gross, and so nearer allied to palpable existences, and more easily reducible to appearance and visibility."[82]
[81] So specious a theory must have occurred to, and its propriety will easily be recognised by, the spirit and ghost advocates of the present day.
[82] _Sadducismus Triumphatus._ Considerations about Witchcraft. Sect. xi.
"Palpable intercourses between the bad genii and mankind" are more frequent than Dr. Glanvil was disposed to believe; and he must have been conversant with the acts of Incubus and Succubus.
In the first age (orbe novo c[oe]loque recenti) under the Saturnian regime, "while yet there was no fear of Jove,"[83]
innocence prevailed undisturbed; but soon as the silver age was inaugurated by the usurpation of Jove, _liaisons_ between G.o.ds and mortals became frequent. Love affairs between good or bad "genii" and mankind are of common occurrence in the mythology of most peoples. In the romance-tales of the middle age lovers find themselves unexpectedly connected with some mysterious being of inhuman kind. The writers in defence of witchcraft quote Genesis vi. in proof of the reality of such intercourses; and Justin Martyr and Tertullian, the great apologists of Christianity, and others of the Fathers, interpret _Filios Dei_ to be angels or evil spirits who, enamoured with the beauty of the women, begot the primeval giants.[84]
[83] "Jove nondum Barbato."
[84] Milton indignantly exclaims, alluding to this common fancy of the leaders of the Primitive Church, "Who would think him fit to write an apology for Christian faith to the Roman Senate that could tell them "how of the angels"--of which he must needs mean those in Genesis called the Sons of G.o.d--"mixing with women were begotten the devils," as good Justin Martyr in his Apology told them." (_Reformation in England_, book i.). And "Clemens Alexandrinus, Sulpicius Severus, Eusebius, &c., make a twofold fall of angels--one from the beginning of the world; another a little before the deluge, as Moses teacheth us, openly professing that these _genii_ can beget and have carnal copulation with woman"
(_Anatomy of Melancholy_, part i.). Robert Burton gives in his adhesion to the sentiments of Lactantius (xiv. 15). It seems that the later Jewish devils owe their origin (according to the Talmudists, as represented by Pererius in the _Anatomy_) to a former wife of Adam, called Lilis, the predecessor of Eve.
Some tremendous results of diabolic connections appear in the metrical romances of the twelfth or thirteenth century, as well as in those early Anglo-Norman chroniclers or fabulists, who have been at the pains to inform us of the pre-historic events of their country. The author of the romance-poem of the well-known Merlin--so famous in British prophecy--in introducing his hero, enters upon a long dissertation on the origin of the infernal arts. He informs us on the authority of "David the prophet, and of Moses," that the greater part of the angels who rebelled under the leadership of Lucifer, lost their former power and beauty, and became "fiendes black:" that instead of being precipitated into "h.e.l.le-pit," many remained in mid-air, where they still retain the faculty of seducing mortals by a.s.suming whatever shape they please. These had been much concerned at the miraculous birth of Christ; but it was hoped to counteract the salutary effects of that event, by producing from some virgin a semi-demon, whose office it should be to disseminate sorcerers and wicked men. For this purpose the devil[85] prepares to seduce three young sisters; and proceeds at once in proper disguise to an old woman, with whose avarice and cunning he was well acquainted. Her he engaged by liberal promises to be mediatrix in the seduction of the elder sister, whom he was prevented from attempting in person by the precautions of a holy hermit. Like "the first that fell of womankind," the young lady at length consented; was betrayed by the _fict.i.tious_ youth, and condemned by the law to be burnt alive.
[85] Probably,
"Belial, the dissolutest spirit that fell, The sensualist; and after Asmodai The fleshliest Incubus."--_Par. Reg._
The same fate, excepting the fearful penalty, awaited the second.
And now, too late, the holy hermit became aware of his disastrous negligence. He strictly enjoined on the third and remaining sister a constant watch. Her security, however, was the cause of her betrayal. On one occasion, in a moment of remissness, she forgot her prayers and the sign of the cross, before retiring for the night. No longer excluded, the fiend, a.s.suming human shape, effected his purpose. In due time a son was born, whose parentage was sufficiently evinced by an entire covering of black hair, although his limbs were well-formed, and his features fine.
Fortunately, the careless guardian had exactly calculated the moment of the demon"s birth; and no sooner was he informed of the event, than the new-born infant was borne off to the regenerating water, when he was christened by the name of Merlin; the fond hopes of the demons being for this time, at least, irretrievably disappointed. How Merlin, by superhuman prowess and knowledge, defeated the Saracens (Saxons) in many b.l.o.o.d.y battles; his magical achievements and favour at the court of King Vortigern and his successors, are fully exhibited by the author of the history.[86] Geoffrey of Monmouth recounts them as matters of fact; and they are repeated by Vergil in the History of Britain, composed under the auspices of Henry VIII.
[86] See _Early English Metrical Romances_, ed. by Sir H.
Ellis.
By the ancients, whole peoples were sometimes said to be derived from these unholy connections. Jornandes, the historian of the Goths, is glad to be able to relate their hated rivals, the Huns (of whom the Kalmuck Tartars are commonly said to be the modern representatives), to have owed their origin to an intercourse of the Scythian witches with infernal spirits. The extraordinary form and features of those dreaded emigrants from the steppes of Tartary, had suggested to the fear and hatred of their European subjects, a fable which Gibbon supposes might have been derived from a more pleasing one of the Greeks.[87]
[87] A sufficiently large collection from ancient and modern writers of the facts of _inhuman_ connections may be seen in the _Anatomy of Melancholy_, part iii. sect. 2. Having repeated the a.s.sertions of previous authors proving the fact of intercourses of human with inferior species of animals, Burton fortifies his own opinion of their reality by numerous authorities. If those stories be true, he reasons, that are written of Incubus and Succubus, of nymphs, lascivious fauns, satyrs, and those heathen G.o.ds which were devils, those lascivious Telchines of whom the Platonists tell so many fables; or those familiar meetings in our day [1624] and company of witches and devils, there is some probability for it. I know that Biarmannus, Wierus, and some others stoutly deny it ... but Austin (lib. xv. _de Civit.
Dei_) doth acknowledge it. And he refers to Plutarch, _Vita Numae; Wierus, de Praestigiis Daemon., Giraldus Cambrensis, Malleus Malef., Jacobus Reussus, G.o.delman, Erastus, John Nider, Delrio, Lipsius, Bodin, Pererius, King James, &c_.
The learned and curious work of the melancholy Student of Christ Church and Oxford Rector has been deservedly commended by many eminent critics. That "exact mathematician and curious calculator of nativities" calculated exactly, according to Anthony Wood (_Athenae Oxon._), the period of his own death--1639.
The acts of Incubus a.s.sume an important part in witch-trials and confessions. Incubus is the visitor of females, Succubus of males. Chaucer satirises the gallantries of the vicarious Incubus by the mouth of the wife of Bath (that practical admirer of Solomon and the Samaritan woman),[88] who prefaces her tale with the a.s.surance:--
That maketh that ther ben no fayeries, For ther as wont was to walken an elf Ther walketh noon but the _Lymitour_ himself.
Women may now go safely up and downe; In every busch and under every tre Ther is noon other _Incubus_ but he.
[88] The wife of Bath, who had buried only her fifth husband, must appear modest by comparison. Not to mention Seneca"s or Martial"s a.s.sertions or insinuations, St. Jerome was acquainted with the case of a woman who had buried her _twenty-second_ husband, whose conjugal capacity, however, was exceeded by the Dutch wife who, on the testimony of honest John Evelyn, had buried her _twenty-fifth_ husband!
Reginald Scot has devoted several chapters of his work to a relation of the exploits of Incubus.[89] But he honestly warns his readers "whose chaste ears cannot well endure to hear of such lecheries (gathered out of the books of divinity of great authority) to turn over a few leaves wherein I have, like a groom, thrust their stuff, even that which I myself loath, as into a stinking corner: howbeit none otherwise, I hope, but that the other parts of my writing shall remain sweet." He repeats a story from the "Vita Hieronymi," which seems to insinuate some suspicion of the character of a certain Bishop Sylva.n.u.s. It relates that one night Incubus invaded a certain lady"s bedroom.
Indignant at so unusual, or at least disguised, an apparition, the lady cried out loudly until the guests of the house came and found it under the bed in the likeness of the bishop; "which holy man," adds Scot, "was much defamed thereby." Another tradition or legend seems to reflect upon the chast.i.ty of the greatest saint of the Middle Ages.[90] The superhuman oppression of Incubus is still remembered in the proverbial language of the present day.
The horrors of the infernal compacts and leagues, as exhibited in the fates of wizards or magicians at the last hour, formed one of the most popular scenes on the theatrical stage. Christopher Marlow, in "The Life and Death of Dr. Faustus," and Robert Greene, in "Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay," in the Elizabethan age, dramatised the common, conception of the Compact.
[89] See the fourth book of the _Discoverie_.
[90] "It is written in the legend of St. Bernard," we are told, "that a pretty wench that had the use of Incubus his body by the s.p.a.ce of six or seven years in Aquitania (being belike weary of him for that he waxed old), would needs go to St. Bernard another while. But Incubus told her if she would so forsake him, he would be revenged upon her. But befal what would, she went to St. Bernard, who took her his staff and bad her lay it in the bed beside her. And, indeed, the devil, fearing the staff or that St. Bernard lay there himself, durst not approach into her chamber that night. What he did afterwards I am uncertain." This story will not appear so evidential to the reader as Scot seems to infer it to be. If any credit is to be given to the strong insinuations of Protestant divines of the sixteenth century, the "holy bishop Sylva.n.u.s" is not the only example among the earlier saints of the frailty of human nature.
CHAPTER II.
Three Sorts of Witches--Various Modes of Witchcraft--Manner of Witch-Travelling--The Sabbaths--Anathemas of the Popes against the Crime--Bull of Adrian VI.--Cotemporary Testimony to the Severity of the Persecutions--Necessary Triumph of the Orthodox Party--Germany most subject to the Superst.i.tion--Acts of Parliament of Henry against Witchcraft--Elizabeth Barton--The Act of 1562--Executions under Queen Elizabeth"s Government--Case of Witchcraft narrated by Reginald Scot.
The ceremonies of the compact by which a woman became a witch have been already referred to. It was almost an essential condition in the vulgar creed that she should be, as Gaule ("Select Cases of Conscience touching Witches," &c., 1646) represents, an old woman with a wrinkled face, a furred brow, a hairy lip, a gobber tooth, a squint eye, a squeaking voice, a scolding tongue, having a ragged coat on her back, a skull-cap on her head, a spindle in her hand, a dog or cat by her side. There are three sorts of the devil"s agents on earth--the black, the gray, and the white witches. The first are omnipotent for evil, but powerless for good. The white have the power to help, but not to hurt.[91] As for the third species (a mixture of white and black), they are equally effective for good or evil.
[91] A writer at the beginning of the seventeenth century (Cotta, _Tryall of Witchcraft_) says, "This kind is not obscure at this day, swarming in this kingdom, whereof no man can be ignorant who l.u.s.teth to observe the uncontrouled liberty and licence of open and ordinary resort in all places unto _wise_ men and _wise_ women, so vulgarly termed for their reputed knowledge concerning such diseased persons as are supposed to be bewitched." And (_Short Discoverie of Un.o.bserved Dangers, 1612_) "the mention of witchecraft doth now occasion the remembrance in the next place of a sort of pract.i.tioners whom our custom and country doth call wise men and wise women, reputed a kind of good and honest harmless witches or wizards, who, by good words, by hallowed herbs and salves, and other superst.i.tious ceremonies, promise to allay and calm devils, practices of other witches, and the forces of many diseases." Another writer of the same date considers "it were a thousand times better for the land if all witches, but specially the _blessing witch_, might suffer death. Men do commonly hate and spit at the _d.a.m.nifying_ sorcerer as unworthy to live among them, whereas they fly unto the other in necessity; they depend upon him as their G.o.d, and by this means thousands are carried away, to their final confusion. Death, therefore, is the just and deserved portion of the _good_ witch."--_Observations on the Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, by Brand, ed. by Sir H. Ellis.
Equally various and contradictory are the motives and acts a.s.signed to witches. Nothing is too great or too mean for their practice: they engage with equal pleasure in the overthrow of a kingdom or a religion, and in inflicting the most ordinary evils and mischiefs in life. Their mode of bewitching is various: by fascination or casting an evil eye ("Nescio," says the Virgilian shepherd, "quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos"); by making representations of the person to be acted upon in wax or clay, roasting them before a fire; by mixing magical ointments or other compositions and ingredients revealed to us in the witch-songs of Shakspeare, Jonson, Middleton, Shadwell, and others; sometimes merely by muttering an imprecation.
They ride in sieves on the sea, on brooms, spits magically prepared; and by these modes of conveyance are borne, without trouble or loss of time, to their destination. By these means they attend the periodical sabbaths, the great meetings of the witch-tribe, where they a.s.semble at stated times to do homage, to recount their services, and to receive the commands of their lord. They are held on the night between Friday and Sat.u.r.day; and every year a grand sabbath is ordered for celebration on the Blocksberg mountains, for the night before the first day of May.
In those famous mountains the obedient va.s.sals congregate from all parts of Christendom--from Italy, Spain, Germany, France, England, and Scotland. A place where four roads meet, a rugged mountain range, or perhaps the neighbourhood of a secluded lake or some dark forest, is usually the spot selected for the meeting.[92]
[92] "When orders had once been issued for the meeting of the sabbath, all the wizards and witches who failed to attend it were lashed by demons with a rod made of serpents or scorpions. In France and England the witches were supposed to ride uniformly upon broom-sticks; but in Italy and Spain, the devil himself, in the shape of a goat, used to transport them on his back, which lengthened or shortened according to the number of witches he was desirous of accommodating. No witch, when proceeding to the sabbath, could get out by a door or window were she to try ever so much. Their general mode of ingress was by the key-hole, and of egress by the chimney, up which they flew, broom and all, with the greatest ease. To prevent the absence of the witches being noticed by their neighbours, some inferior demon was commanded to a.s.sume their shapes, and lie in their beds, feigning illness, until the sabbath was over. When all the wizards and witches had arrived at the place of rendezvous, the infernal ceremonies began. Satan having a.s.sumed his favourite shape of a large he-goat, with a face in front and another in his haunches, took his seat upon a throne; and all present in succession paid their respects to him and kissed him in his face behind. This done, he appointed a master of the ceremonies, in company with whom he made a personal examination of all the witches, to see whether they had the secret mark about them by which they were stamped as the devil"s own. This mark was always insensible to pain. Those who had not yet been marked received the mark from the master of the ceremonies, the devil at the same time bestowing nick-names upon them. This done, they all began to sing and dance in the most furious manner until some one arrived who was anxious to be admitted into their society. They were then silent for a while until the new comer had denied his salvation, kissed the devil, spat upon the Bible, and sworn obedience to him in all things. They then began dancing again with all their might and singing.... In the course of an hour or two they generally became wearied of this violent exercise, and then they all sat down and recounted their evil deeds since last meeting. Those who had not been malicious and mischievous enough towards their fellow-creatures received personal chastis.e.m.e.nt from Satan himself, who flogged them with thorns or scorpions until they were covered with blood and unable to sit or stand. When this ceremony was concluded, they were all amused by a dance of toads. Thousands of these creatures sprang out of the earth, and standing on their hind-legs, danced while the devil played the bagpipes or the trumpet. These toads were all endowed with the faculty of speech, and entreated the witches there to reward them with the flesh of unbaptized infants for their exertions to give them pleasure. The witches promised compliance. The devil bade them remember to keep their word; and then stamping his foot, caused all the toads to sink into the earth in an instant. The place being thus cleared, preparations were made for the banquet, where all manner of disgusting things were served up and greedily devoured by the demons and witches, although the latter were sometimes regaled with choice meats and expensive wines, from golden plates and crystal goblets; but they were never thus favoured unless they had done an extraordinary number of evil deeds since the last period of meeting. After the feast, they began dancing again; but such as had no relish for any more exercise in that way, amused themselves by mocking the holy sacrament of baptism. For this purpose the toads were again called up, and sprinkled with filthy water, the devil making the sign of the cross, and all the witches calling out--[some gibberish]. When the devil wished to be particularly amused, he made the witches strip off their clothes and dance before him, each with a cat tied round her neck, and another dangling from her body in form of a tail.
When the c.o.c.k crew they all disappeared, and the sabbath was ended. This is a summary of the belief that prevailed for many centuries nearly all over Europe, and which is far from eradicated even at this day."--_Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions_, by C. Mackay.
A mock sermon often concludes the night"s proceedings, the ordinary salutation of the _osculum in tergo_ being first given.
But these circ.u.mstances are innocent compared with the obscene practices when the lights are put out; indiscriminate debauchery being then the order of the night. A new rite of baptism initiated the neophyte into his new service: the candidate being signed with the sign of the devil on that part of the body least observable, and submitting at the same time to the first act of criminal compliance, to be often repeated. On these occasions the demon presents himself in the form of either s.e.x, according to that of his slaves. It was elicited from a witch examined at a trial that, from the period of her servitude, the devil had had intercourse with her _ut viri c.u.m f[oe]minis solent_, excepting only in one remarkable particular.
During the pontificate of Julius II.--the first decade of the sixteenth century--a set of sorceresses was discovered in large numbers: a dispute between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities averted their otherwise certain destruction. The successors of Innocent VIII. repeated his anathemas. Alexander VI., Leo X., and Adrian VI. appointed special commissioners for hunting up sorcerers and heretics. In 1523, Adrian issued a bull against _Haeresis Strigiats_ with power to excommunicate all who opposed those engaged in the inquisition. He characterises the obnoxious cla.s.s as a sect deviating from the Catholic faith, denying their baptism, showing contempt for the sacraments, in particular for that of the Eucharist, treading crosses under foot, and taking the devil as their lord.[93] How many suffered for the crime during the thirty or forty years following upon the bull of 1484, it is difficult exactly to ascertain: that some thousands perished is certain, on the testimony of the judges themselves. The often-quoted words of Florimond, author of a work "On Antichrist," as given by Del Rio the Jesuit ("De Magia"), are not hyperbolical. "All those," says he, "who have afforded us some signs of the approach of antichrist agree that the increase of sorcery and witchcraft is to distinguish the melancholy period of his advent; and was ever age so afflicted with them as ours?
The seats destined for criminals before our judicatories are blackened with persons accused of this guilt. There are not judges enough to try enough. Our dungeons are gorged with them.
No day pa.s.ses that we do not render our tribunals b.l.o.o.d.y by the dooms we p.r.o.nounce, or in which we do not return to our homes discountenanced and terrified at the horrible contents of the confessions which it has been our duty to hear. And the devil is accounted so good a master that we cannot commit so great a number of his slaves to the flames but what there shall arise from their ashes a number sufficient to supply their place."
[93] Francis Hutchison"s _Historical Essay concerning Witchcraft_, chap. xiv.; the author quotes Barthol. de Spina, _de Strigibus_.
It is within neither the design nor the limits of these pages to repeat all the witch-cases, which might fill several volumes; it is sufficient for the purpose to sketch a few of the most notorious and prominent, and to notice the most remarkable characteristics of the creed.
Maximilian I., Emperor of Germany, protected the inquisitorial executioners from the indignant vengeance of the inhabitants of the districts of Southern Germany, which would have been soon almost depopulated by an unsparing ma.s.sacre and a ferocious zeal: while Sigismund, Prince of the Tyrol, is said to have been inclined to soften the severity of a persecution he was totally unable, if he had been disposed, to prevent. Ulric Molitor, under the auspices of this prince, however, published a treatise in Switzerland ("De Pythonicis Mulieribus") in the form of a dialogue, in which Sigismund, Molitor, and a citizen of Constance are the interlocutors. They argue as to the practice of witchcraft; and the argument is to establish that, although the practicers of the crime are worthy of death, much of the vulgar opinion on the subject is false. Even in the middle of the fifteenth century, and in Spain, could be found an a.s.sertor, in some degree, of common sense, whose sentiments might scandalise some Protestant divines. Alphonse de Spina was a native of Castile, of the order of St. Francis: his book was written against heretics and unbelievers, but there is a chapter in which some acts attributed to sorcerers, as transportation through the air, transformations, &c., are rejected as unreal.
From that time two parties were in existence, one of which advocated the entire reality of all the acts commonly imputed to witches; while the other maintained that many of their supposed crimes were mere delusions suggested by the Great Enemy. The former, as the orthodox party, were, from the nature of the case, most successful in the argument--a seeming paradox explained by the nature and course of the controversy. Only the _received_ method of demoniacal possession was questioned by the adverse side, accepting without doubt the possibility--and, indeed, the actual existence--of the phenomenon. Thus the liberals, or pseudo-liberals, in that important controversy were placed in an illogical position. For (as their opponents might triumphantly argue) if the devil"s power and possession could be manifested in one way, why not by any other method. Nor was it for them to determine the appointed methods of his schemes, as permitted by Providence, for the injury and ruin of mankind. The diabolic economy, as evidently set forth in the work of man"s destruction, might require certain modes of acting quite above our reason and understanding. To the sceptics (or to the _atheists_, as they were termed) the orthodox could allege, "Will you not believe in witches? The Scriptures aver their existence: to the jurisconsults will you dispute the existence of a crime against which our statute-book and the code of almost all civilised countries have attested by laws upon which hundreds and thousands have been convicted; many, or even most, of whom have, by their judicial confessions, acknowledged their guilt and the justice of their punishment? It is a strange scepticism, they might add, that rejects the evidence of Scripture, of human legislature, and of the accused persons themselves."[94] Reason was hopelessly oppressed by faith. In the presence of universal superst.i.tion, in the absence of the modern philosophy, escape seemed all but impossible.
[94] Sir W. Scott"s _Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft_, chap. vi.
If preeminence in this particular prejudice can be a.s.signed to any single region or people, perhaps Germany more than any other land was subject to the demonological fever. A fact to be explained as well by its being the great theatre for more than a hundred years of the grand religious struggle between the opposing Catholics and Protestants, as by its natural fitness.
The gloomy mountain ranges--the Hartz mountains are especially famous in the national legend--and forests with which it abounds rendered the imaginative minds of its peoples peculiarly susceptible to impressions of supernaturalism.[95] France takes the next place in the fury of the persecution. Danaeus ("Dialogue") speaks of an innumerable number of witches. England, Scotland, Spain, Italy perhaps come next in order.
[95] How greatly the imagination of the Germans was attracted by the supernatural and the marvellous is plainly seen both in the old national poems and in the great work of the national mythologist, Jacob Grimm (_Deutsche Mythologie_).
Spain, the dominion of the Arabs for seven centuries, was naturally the land of magic. During the government of Ferdinand I., or of Isabella, the inquisition was firmly established. That numbers were sent from the dungeons and torture-chambers to the stake, with the added stigma of dealing in the "black art," is certain; but in that priest-dominated, servilely orthodox southern land, the Church was not perhaps so much interested in confounding the crimes of heresy and sorcery. The first was simply sufficient for provoking horror and hatred of the condemned. The South of France is famous for being the very nest of sorcery: the witch-sabbaths were frequently held there. It was the country of the Albigenses, which had been devastated by De Montfort, the executioner of Catholic vengeance, in the twelfth century, and was, with something of the same sort of savageness, ravaged by De Lanere in the seventeenth century. Scotland, before the religious revolution, exhibits a few remarkable cases of witch-persecution, as that of the Earl of Mar, brother of James III. He had been suspected of calling in the aid of sorcery to ascertain the term of the king"s life: the earl was bled to death without trial, and his death was followed by the burning of twelve witches, and four wizards, at Edinburgh. Lady Glammis, sister of the Earl of Angus, of the family of Douglas, accused of conspiring the king"s death in a similar way, was put to death in 1537. As in England, in the cases of the d.u.c.h.ess of Gloucester and others, the crime appears to be rather an adjunct than the princ.i.p.al charge itself; more political than popular. Protestant Scotland it is that has earned the reputation of being one of the most superst.i.tious countries in Europe.