[6] Mark viii: 15.
[7] See page 308.
[8] See the author"s autobiography, _A Far Journey_, chap. 1, ent.i.tled "My Father"s House."
[9] Matt. viii: 32; Mark v: 13; Luke viii: 33.
[10] For the reason why the mother of the prodigal is not mentioned in the parable, see pages 207 and 334.
[11] Matt. xiii: 44.
[12] _Atlantic Monthly_, December, 1915. This story, with other essays, will soon appear in book form.
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CHAPTER VII
SWEARING
Perhaps the one phase of his speech which lays the Oriental open to the charge of unveracity is his much swearing. Of course this evil habit knows no geographical boundaries and no racial limits. However, probably because of their tendency to be profuse, intense, and positive in speech, the Orientals no doubt have more than their legitimate share of swearing. But it should be kept in mind that in that part of the world swearing is not looked upon with the same disapproval and contempt as in America; swearing by the name of the Deity has always been considered the most sacred and solemn affirmation of a statement.
It is simply calling G.o.d to witness that what has been said is the sacred truth. Thus in the twenty-first chapter of the book of Genesis Abimelech asks Abraham, "Now therefore swear unto me here by G.o.d that thou wilt not deal falsely with me, nor {168} with my son, nor with my son"s son." "And Abraham said, I will swear."
St. Paul employs this type of speech in a milder form, after the New Testament fashion, in the opening verse of the twelfth chapter of his Epistle to the Romans, where he says: "I beseech you, therefore, brethren, _by the mercies of G.o.d_, that ye present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto G.o.d, which is your reasonable service." In the opening verse of the ninth chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, Paul succeeds in an elegant manner in dispensing with swearing altogether, when he says: "I say the truth in Christ, I lie not, my conscience also bearing me witness in the Holy Ghost."
Generally speaking, however, the custom of swearing after the manner of the Old Testament has undergone no change in Syria since the days of Abraham. Swearing is an integral element in Oriental speech.
Instinctively the speaker turns his eyes and lifts his hands toward heaven and says, "By Allah, what I have {169} said is right and true.
_Yeshhedo-Allah_ [G.o.d witnesseth] to the truth of my words." In a similar manner, and as in a score of places in the Old Testament, the maker of a statement is asked by his hearer to swear by G.o.d as a solemn a.s.surance that his statement is true and sincere.
The Mohammedan law, which is the law of modern Syria, demands swearing in judicial contests. The judge awards the accuser--that is, the plaintiff--the right to lead the defendant to any shrine he may choose, and cause him to swear the _yemin_ (solemn oath) as a final witness to his innocence. By this act the plaintiff places his adversary in the hands of the Supreme Judge, whose judgments are "true and righteous altogether." A false oath is supposed to bring awful retribution upon its maker and upon his posterity.
Of such importance is this mode of speech to Orientals that the Israelites thought of Jehovah Himself as making such affirmations. In the twenty-second chapter of Genesis we have the words, "By myself have I sworn, saith the {170} Lord." Further light is thrown on this point by the explanation given to the verse just quoted in the sixth chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews, where it is said, "For when G.o.d made promise to Abraham, because he could swear by no greater, he swore by himself."
I have no doubt that this thought of G.o.d swearing by himself sprang from the custom of Oriental aristocrats of sealing a vow, or solemnly affirming a statement, or an intention to do some daring deed, by saying, "I swear by my head"--an oath which, whenever I heard it in my youth, filled me with awe. Thus, also, in the sixty-second chapter of Isaiah we have the words, "The Lord hath sworn by his right hand, and by the arm of his strength."
Among the Mohammedans, swearing "by the most high G.o.d" and "by the life of the Prophet" and "by the exalted Koran" in affirmation of almost every statement, is universal. The Christians swear by G.o.d, Christ, the Virgin, the Cross, the Saints, the repose of their dead, the Holy City, the Eucharist, {171} Heaven, great holidays, and many other names. A father swears by the life of a dear child, and sons of distinguished fathers swear by them. "By the life of my father, I am telling the truth," is a very common expression. The antiquity of this custom is made evident by the pa.s.sage in the thirty-first chapter of Genesis and the fifty-third verse: "And Jacob sware by the fear of his father Isaac." However, the word "fear" does violence to the real meaning of the verse, which the Arabic version rescues by saying, "And Jacob swore by the _heybet_ [benignity, or beautiful dignity] of his father." He swore by that which he and others loved, and not feared, in his father.
But what must seem to Americans utterly ridiculous is the Oriental habit of swearing by the mustache and the beard, which is, however, one phase of swearing by the head. To swear by one"s mustache, or beard, means to pledge the integrity of one"s manhood. "I swear by this," is said solemnly by a man with his hand upon his mustache. Swearing by the {172} beard is supposed to carry more weight because, as a rule, it is worn by the older men. To speak disrespectfully of one"s mustache or beard, or to curse the beard of a person"s father, is to invite serious trouble.
The sacredness of the beard to Orientals goes back to the remote past when all the hair of the head and the face was considered sacred.
Growing a beard is still esteemed a solemn act in Syria, so much so that, having let his beard grow, one cannot shave it off without becoming a by-word in the community. To speak of the scissors or of a razor in the presence of one wearing a beard, especially if he be a priest, or of the aristocracy, is considered a deep insult to him.
Such unseemly conduct seldom fails to precipitate a fight. In 2 Samuel, the tenth chapter, fourth verse, we have the record of Hanun"s disgraceful treatment of David"s men, whom he had thought to be spies.
"Wherefore Hanun took David"s servants, and shaved off the one half of their beards, and cut off their garments in the middle, even to their b.u.t.tocks, {173} and sent them away. When they told it unto David, he sent to meet them, because the men _were greatly ashamed_: and the king said, Tarry at Jericho _until your beards be grown_, and then return."
It is because of this ancient conception of the hair that the Syrians still swear by the mustache and the beard, although the majority of them know not the real reason why they do so.
I remember distinctly how proud I was in my youth to put my hand upon my mustache, when it was yet not even large enough to be respectfully noticed, and swear by it _as a man_. I recall also to what roars of laughter I would provoke my elders at such times, to my great dismay.
Here it may easily be seen that swearing in the Orient had so lost its original sacredness and become so vulgar, even as far back as the time of Christ, that He deemed it necessary to give the unqualified command, "Swear not at all: neither by heaven, for it is G.o.d"s throne, nor by the earth, for it is his footstool: neither by {174} Jerusalem, for it is the city of the great King. Neither shalt thou swear by thy head, because thou canst not make one hair white or black. But let your communication be yea, yea; nay, nay; for whatsoever is more than these cometh of evil." This was perhaps the most difficult command to obey that Jesus ever gave to his countrymen.
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CHAPTER VIII
FOUR CHARACTERISTICS
Of the other characteristics of Oriental speech, I wish to speak of four before I bring this part of my book to a close.
The first, the many and picturesque dialects. The entire absence of the public school, the scarcity of other educational inst.i.tutions, as well as of books and periodicals, and the extreme slowness of transportation, have always tended to perpetuate the mult.i.tude of dialects in the speech of the Syrian people. The common language of the land is the Arabic, which is divided into two types--the cla.s.sical and the common, or the language of learning and that of daily speech.
The cla.s.sical language is one, but the common language is a labyrinth of dialects. Each section of that small country has its _lehjah_ (accent), and it is no exaggeration to say that each town within those sections has a _lehjah_ of its own. Certain letters of the {176} alphabet are also sounded differently in different localities. Thus, for an example, the word for "stood" is p.r.o.nounced _qam_ in certain localities, and _aam_ in others. The word for "male" is p.r.o.nounced _zeker_ by some communities, and _deker_ by others.
That such a state of things prevailed also in ancient Israel and in New Testament times is very evident. In the twelfth chapter of the Book of Judges we have the record of a fight between the Gileadites and the Ephraimites, in which we find the following statement: "And the Gileadites took the pa.s.sages of Jordan before the Ephraimites: and it was so, that when those Ephraimites which were escaped said, Let me go over; that the men of Gilead said unto him, Art thou an Ephraimite? If he said, Nay; then said they unto him, Say now Shibboleth: and he said Sibboleth: _for he could not frame to p.r.o.nounce it right_. Then they took him, and slew him."
This simple means of identification might be used in present-day Syria with equal success.
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In the fourteenth chapter of St. Mark"s Gospel we have another striking ill.u.s.tration of this characteristic of Oriental speech, in Peter"s experience in the palace of the high priest. In the fifty-third verse it is said: "And they led Jesus away to the high priest: and with him were a.s.sembled all the chief priests and the elders and the scribes.
And Peter followed him afar off, even into the palace of the high priest." The record continues (verses 66-71): "And as Peter was beneath in the palace, there cometh one of the maids of the high priest: and when she saw Peter warming himself, she looked upon him, and said, And thou also wast with Jesus of Nazareth. But he denied, saying, I know not, neither understand I what thou sayest. And he went out into the porch.... And a little after, they that stood by said again to Peter, Surely thou art one of them: for thou art a Galilaean, _and thy speech agreeth thereto_.[1] But he began to curse and to swear, saying, I know not this man of whom ye speak."
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Poor Peter! the more he swore and cursed the more clearly he revealed his ident.i.ty. His cowardice might have concealed him, but for his dialect. He spoke the dialect of Galilee in the city of Jerusalem, and so far as the identification of his person was concerned, even a certificate from the authorities of the town of his birth, testifying to his being a native of Galilee, could not have so effectively served that purpose.
The second characteristic is the juvenile habit of imploring "in season and out of season" when asking a favor. To try to exert "undue"
influence, virtually to beg in most persuasive tones, is an Oriental habit which to an American must seem unendurable. Of the many ill.u.s.trations of this custom which fill my memory I will relate the following incident, which I once heard a man relate to my father.
This man had bought, for six hundred piasters, a piece of land which had been given as a _nezer_ (vow) to our Greek Orthodox Church. After he had given his note for the {179} sum and secured the deed, it occurred to him that the price was too high, and, being himself a son of the Church, that he ought to secure the land for four hundred piasters. So, as he stated, he went to Beyrout, the seat of our bishop, where he stayed three days. By constant pet.i.tioning, he secured the privilege of interviewing the bishop four times on the subject. With great glee he stated that at the last interview he refused to rise from his seat at the feet of that long-suffering ecclesiastic until his pet.i.tion was granted.
One of the most striking examples of this characteristic is the parable of the unrighteous judge, in the eighteenth chapter of Luke. "There was in a city a judge, which feared not G.o.d, neither regarded man: and there was a widow in that city, and she came unto him saying, Avenge me [the original is "do me justice"] of mine adversary. And he would not for a while: but afterward he said within himself, Though I fear not G.o.d, nor regard man, yet because this widow troubleth me, I will {180} avenge her, _lest by her continual coming she weary me_."
Here is a case--by no means a rare exception in that country--where a judge rendered a verdict against his own best judgment in sheer self-defense. And I must say that, knowing such Oriental tendencies as I do, especially as manifested by widows, I am in deep sympathy with the judge.
Yet it was this very persistence in pet.i.tioning the Father of all men which gave mankind the lofty psalms and tender prayers of our Scriptures. It was this persistent filial pleading and imploring which made Israel turn again and again to the "G.o.d of righteousness" and say, "We have sinned," and ask for a deeper revealing of his ways to them.
Job"s cry, "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him," may not be the proper language of modern etiquette, but it certainly is the language of religion. In the very parable just quoted, Jesus recommends to his disciples the insistence of the widow as a means to draw the benediction of heaven upon {181} them, and to secure for them justification at the hands of the righteous judge. Honest seekers after spiritual gifts should not be averse to imitating this Oriental trait. They should never be afraid to come to their Father again and again for his gracious blessing, or refrain from "storming the gates of heaven with prayer."
The third characteristic of Oriental speech is its intimacy and unreserve. Mere implications which are so common to reserved and guarded speech leave a void in the Oriental heart. It is because of this that the Orientals have always craved "signs and wonders," and interpreted natural phenomena in terms of direct miraculous communications from G.o.d to convince them that He cared for them.
Although Gideon was speaking with Jehovah Himself, who promised to help him to save his kinsmen from the Midianites, he asked for a more tangible, more definite sign. We are told in the sixth chapter of Judges, thirty-sixth verse: "And Gideon said unto G.o.d, If thou wilt save Israel by mine hand, as thou hast spoken, behold, I will put a {182} fleece of wool on the threshing-floor; if there be dew on the fleece only, and it be dry upon all the ground, then shall I know that thou wilt save Israel by mine hand, as thou hast spoken. And it was so." But Gideon, still unsatisfied, speaks again in childlike simplicity and intimacy; "Let not thine anger be kindled against me, and I will speak but this once: let me make trial, I pray thee, but this once with the fleece; let it now be dry only upon the fleece, and upon all the ground let there be dew. And G.o.d did so that night."
It is not at all uncommon for old and tried friends in Syria to give and ask for affectionate a.s.surances, that they do love one another.
Such expressions are the wine of life. Especially when new confidences are exchanged or great favors asked, a man turns with guileless eyes to his trusted friend and says, "Now you love me; I say you love me, don"t you?" "My soul, my eyes," answers the other, "you know what is in my heart toward you; you know and the Creator knows!" Then the request is made. {183} One of the n.o.blest and tenderest pa.s.sages in the New Testament, a pa.s.sage whose spirit has fed the strength of the Christian missionaries throughout the ages, is that portion of the twenty-first chapter of St. John"s Gospel where Jesus speaks to Peter in this intimate Syrian fashion. How sweet and natural it sounds to a son of the East! "So when they had dined, Jesus saith to Simon Peter, Simon, son of Jonas, lovest thou me?" How characteristic also is Peter"s answer, "Yea, Lord; thou knowest that I love thee." Then came the precious request, "Feed my lambs." Three times did the affectionate Master knock at the door of Peter"s heart, till the poor impetuous disciple cried, "Lord, thou knowest all things; thou knowest that I love thee. Jesus saith unto him, Feed my sheep."
The fourth characteristic of Oriental speech is its unqualified positiveness. Outside the small circles of Europeanized Syrians, such qualifying phrases as "in my opinion," "so it seems to me," "as I see it," and the like, are {184} almost entirely absent from Oriental speech. The Oriental is never so cautious in his speech as a certain American editor of a religious paper, who in speaking of Cain described him as "the _alleged_ murderer of Abel"! Such expressions, also, are rarely used in the Bible, and then only in the New Testament, in which Greek influence plays no small part. Thus in the seventh chapter of his second Epistle to the Corinthians, Paul, in giving his opinion on marriage said, "_I suppose_, therefore, that this is good for the present distress," and so forth. I am not aware that this form of speech is used anywhere in the entire Old Testament.