I am greatly indebted to the kindness of an eminent Chinese scholar, Mr.
W.F. Mayers, of Her Majesty"s Legation at Peking, who, in a letter, dated Peking, 18th September, 1874, sends me the following memorandum on the subject:--
"_Colonel Yule"s Marco Polo_, II. 97 [First Edition], _Burning of the Dead_.
"On this subject compare the article ent.i.tled _Huo Tsang_, or "Cremation Burials," in Bk. XV of the _Jih Che Luh_, or "Daily Jottings," a great collection of miscellaneous notes on cla.s.sical, historical, and antiquarian subjects, by Ku Yen-wu, a celebrated author of the 17th century. The article is as follows:--
""The practice of burning the dead flourished (or flourishes) most extensively in Kiang-nan, and was in vogue already in the period of the Sung Dynasty. According to the history of the Sung Dynasty, in the 27th year of the reign Shao-hing (A.D. 1157), the practice was animadverted upon by a public official." Here follows a long extract, in which the burning of the dead is reprehended, and it is stated that cemeteries were set apart by Government on behalf of the poorer cla.s.ses.
"In A.D. 1261, Hw.a.n.g Chen, governor of the district of Wu, in a memorial praying that the erection of cremation furnaces might thenceforth be prohibited, dwelt upon the impropriety of burning the remains of the deceased, for whose obsequies a mult.i.tude of observances were prescribed by the religious rites. He further exposed the fallacy of the excuse alleged for the practice, to wit, that burning the dead was a fulfilment of the precepts of Buddha, and accused the priests of a certain monastery of converting into a source of illicit gain the practice of cremation."
[As an ill.u.s.tration of the cremation of a Buddhist priest, I note the following pa.s.sage from an article published in the _North-China Herald_, 20th May, 1887, p. 556, on Kwei Hua Ch"eng, Mongolia: "Several Lamas are on visiting terms with me and they are very friendly. There are seven large and eight small Lamaseries, in care of from ten to two hundred Lamas. The princ.i.p.al Lamas at death are cremated. A short time ago, a friendly Lama took me to see a cremation. The furnace was roughly made of mud bricks, with four fire-holes at the base, with an opening in which to place the body. The whole was about 6 feet high, and about 5 feet in circ.u.mference. Greased fuel was arranged within and covered with glazed foreign calico, on which were written some Tibetan characters. A tent was erected and mats arranged for the Lamas. About 11:30 A.M. a scarlet covered bier appeared in sight carried by thirty-two beggars. A box 2 feet square and 2-1/2 feet high was taken out and placed near the furnace. The Lamas arrived and attired themselves in gorgeous robes and sat cross-legged. During the preparations to chant, some b.u.t.ter was being melted in a corner of the tent. A screen of calico was drawn round the furnace in which the cremator placed the body, and filled up the opening.
Then a dozen Lamas began chanting the burial litany in Tibetan in deep ba.s.s voices. Then the head priest blessed the torches and when the fires were lit he blessed a fan to fan the flames, and lastly some melted b.u.t.ter, which was poured in at the top to make the whole blaze. This was frequently repeated. When fairly ablaze, a few pieces of Tibetan gra.s.s were thrown in at the top. After three days the whole cooled, and a priest with one gold and one silver chopstick collects the bones, which are placed in a bag for burial. If the bones are white it is a sign that his sin is purged, if black that perfection has not been attained."--H.C.]
And it is very worthy of note that the Chinese envoy to Chinla (Kamboja) in 1295, an individual who may have personally known Marco Polo, in speaking of the custom prevalent there of exposing the dead, adds: "There are some, however, who burn their dead. _These are all descendants of Chinese immigrants._"
[Professor J.J.M. de Groot remarks that "being of religious origin, cremation is mostly denoted in China by clerical terms, expressive of the metamorphosis the funeral pyre is intended to effect, viz. "transformation of man"; "transformation of the body"; "metamorphosis by fire." Without the clerical sphere it bears no such high-sounding names, being simply called "incineration of corpses." A term of illogical composition, and nevertheless very common in the books, is "fire burial."" It appears that during the Sung Dynasty cremation was especially common in the provinces of Shan-si, Cheh-kiang, and Kiang-su. During the Mongol Dynasty, the instances of cremation which are mentioned in Chinese books are, relatively speaking, numerous. Professor de Groot says also that "there exists evidence that during the Mongol domination cremation also throve in Fuhkien." (_Religious System of China_, vol. iii. pp. 1391, 1409, 1410.) --H.C.]
(_Doolittle_, 190; _Deguignes_, I. 69; _Cathay_, pp. 247, 479; _Reinaud_, I. 56; _India in the XVth Century_, p. 23; _Semedo_, p. 95; _Rem. Mel.
Asiat._ I. 128.)
CHAPTER LXI.
CONCERNING THE CITY OF CHINANGLI, AND THAT OF TADINFU, AND THE REBELLION OF LITAN.
Chinangli is a city of Cathay as you go south, and it belongs to the Great Kaan; the people are Idolaters, and have paper-money. There runs through the city a great and wide river, on which a large traffic in silk goods and spices and other costly merchandize pa.s.ses up and down.
When you travel south from Chinangli for five days, you meet everywhere with fine towns and villages, the people of which are all Idolaters, and burn their dead, and are subject to the Great Kaan, and have paper-money, and live by trade and handicrafts, and have all the necessaries of life in great abundance. But there is nothing particular to mention on the way till you come, at the end of those five days, to TADINFU.[NOTE 1]
This, you must know, is a very great city, and in old times was the seat of a great kingdom; but the Great Kaan conquered it by force of arms.
Nevertheless it is still the n.o.blest city in all those provinces. There are very great merchants here, who trade on a great scale, and the abundance of silk is something marvellous. They have, moreover, most charming gardens abounding with fruit of large size. The city of Tadinfu hath also under its rule eleven imperial cities of great importance, all of which enjoy a large and profitable trade, owing to that immense produce of silk.[NOTE 2]
Now, you must know, that in the year of Christ, 1273, the Great Kaan had sent a certain Baron called LIYTAN SANGON,[NOTE 3] with some 80,000 horse, to this province and city, to garrison them. And after the said captain had tarried there a while, he formed a disloyal and traitorous plot, and stirred up the great men of the province to rebel against the Great Kaan. And so they did; for they broke into revolt against their sovereign lord, and refused all obedience to him, and made this Liytan, whom their sovereign had sent thither for their protection, to be the chief of their revolt.
When the Great Kaan heard thereof he straightway despatched two of his Barons, one of whom was called AGUIL and the other MONGOTAY;[NOTE 4]
giving them 100,000 horse and a great force of infantry. But the affair was a serious one, for the Barons were met by the rebel Liytan with all those whom he had collected from the province, mustering more than 100,000 horse and a large force of foot. Nevertheless in the battle Liytan and his party were utterly routed, and the two Barons whom the Emperor had sent won the victory. When the news came to the Great Kaan he was right well pleased, and ordered that all the chiefs who had rebelled, or excited others to rebel, should be put to a cruel death, but that those of lower rank should receive a pardon. And so it was done. The two Barons had all the leaders of the enterprise put to a cruel death, and all those of lower rank were pardoned. And thenceforward they conducted themselves with loyalty towards their lord.[NOTE 5]
Now having told you all about this affair, let us have done with it, and I will tell you of another place that you come to in going south, which is called SINJU-MATU.
NOTE 1.--There seems to be no solution to the difficulties attaching to the account of these two cities (Chinangli and Tadinfu) except that the two have been confounded, either by a lapse of memory on the traveller"s part or by a misunderstanding on that of Rusticiano.
The position and name of CHINANGLI point, as Pauthier has shown, to T"SI-NAN FU, the chief city of Shan-tung. The second city is called in the G. Text and Pauthier"s MSS. _Candinfu_, _Condinfu_, and _Cundinfu_, names which it has not been found possible to elucidate. But adopting the reading _Tadinfu_ of some of the old printed editions (supported by the _Tudinfu_ of Ramusio and the _Tandifu_ of the Riccardian MS.), Pauthier shows that the city now called _Yen-chau_ bore under the Kin the name of TAI-TING FU, which may fairly thus be recognised. [Under the Sung Dynasty Yen-chau was named T"ai-ning and Lung-k"ing. (_Playfair"s Dict._ p. 388.)--H.C.]
It was not, however, Yen-chau, but _T"si-nan fu_, which was "the n.o.blest city in all those provinces," and had been "in old times the seat of a kingdom," as well as recently the scene of the episode of Litan"s rebellion. T"si-nan fu lies in a direct line 86 miles south of T"sang-chau (_Changlu_), near the banks of the Ta-t"singho, a large river which communicates with the great ca.n.a.l near T"si-ning chau, and which was, no doubt, of greater importance in Polo"s time than in the last six centuries. For up nearly to the origin of the Mongol power it appears to have been one of the main discharges of the Hw.a.n.g-Ho. The recent changes in that river have again brought its main stream into the same channel, and the "New Yellow River" pa.s.ses three or four miles to the north of the city. T"si-nan fu has frequently of late been visited by European travellers, who report it as still a place of importance, with much life and bustle, numerous book-shops, several fine temples, two mosques, and all the furniture of a provincial capital. It has also a Roman Catholic Cathedral of Gothic architecture. (_Williamson_, I. 102.)
[Tsi-nan "is a populous and rich city; and by means of the river (Ta Tsing ho, Great Clear River) carries on an extensive commerce. The soil is fertile, and produces grain and fruits in abundance. Silk of an excellent quality is manufactured, and commands a high price. The lakes and rivers are well stored with fish." (_Chin. Rep._ XI. p. 562.)--H.C.]
NOTE 2.--The Chinese Annals, more than 2000 years B.C., speak of silk as an article of tribute from Shan-tung; and evidently it was one of the provinces most noted in the Middle Ages for that article. Compare the quotation in note on next chapter from Friar Odoric. Yet the older modern accounts speak only of the _wild_ silk of Shan-tung. Mr. Williamson, however, points out that there is an extensive produce from the genuine mulberry silkworm, and antic.i.p.ates a very important trade in Shan-tung silk. Silk fabrics are also largely produced, and some of extraordinary quality. (_Williamson_, I. 112, 131.)
The expressions of Padre Martini, in speaking of the wild silk of Shan-tung, strongly remind one of the talk of the ancients about the origin of silk, and suggest the possibility that this may not have been mere groundless fancy: "Non in glob.u.m aut ovum ductum, sed in longissimum filum paulatim ex ore emissum, albi coloris, quae arbustis dumisque, adhaerentia, atque a vento huc illucque agitata colliguntur," etc. Compare this with Pliny"s "Seres lanitia silvarum n.o.biles, perfusam aqua depectentes frondium caniciem," or Claudian"s "Stamine, quod molli tondent de stipite Seres, Frondea lanigerae carpentes vellera silvae; Et longum tenues tractus producit in aurum."
NOTE 3.--The t.i.tle _Sangon_ is, as Pauthier points out, the Chinese _Tsiang-kiun_, a "general of division", [or better "Military Governor".
--H.C.] John Bell calls an officer, bearing the same t.i.tle, "Merin _Sanguin_" I suspect _T"siang-kiun_ is the _Jang-Jang_ of Baber.
NOTE 4.--AGUL was the name of a distant cousin of Kublai, who was the father of Nayan (supra, ch. ii. and Genealogy of the House of Chinghiz in Appendix A). MANGKUTAI, under Kublai, held the command of the third Hazara (Thousand) of the right wing, in which he had succeeded his father Jedi Noyan. lie was greatly distinguished in the invasion of South China under Bayan. (_Erdmann"s Temudschin_, pp. 220, 455; _Gaubil_, p. 160.)
NOTE 5.--LITAN, a Chinese of high military position and reputation under the Mongols, in the early part of Kublai"s reign, commanded the troops in Shan-tung and the conquered parts of Kiang-nan. In the beginning of 1262 he carried out a design that he had entertained since Kublai"s accession, declared for the Sung Emperor, to whom he gave up several important places, put detached Mongol garrisons to the sword, and fortified T"si-nan and T"sing-chau. Kublai despatched Prince Apiche and the General Ssetienche against him. Litan, after some partial success, was beaten and driven into T"si-nan, which the Mongols immediately invested. After a blockade of four months, the garrison was reduced to extremities. Litan, in despair, put his women to death and threw himself into a lake adjoining the city; but he was taken out alive and executed. T"sing-chau then surrendered. (_Gaubil_, 139-140; _De Mailla_, IX. 298 seqq.; _D"Ohsson_, II. 381.)
Pauthier gives greater detail from the Chinese Annals, which confirm the amnesty granted to all but the chiefs of the rebellion.
The date in the text is wrong or corrupt, as is generally the case.
CHAPTER LXII.
CONCERNING THE n.o.bLE CITY OF SINJUMATU.
On leaving Tadinfu you travel three days towards the south, always finding numbers of n.o.ble and populous towns and villages flourishing with trade and manufactures. There is also abundance of game in the country, and everything in profusion.
When you have travelled those three days you come to the n.o.ble city of SINJUMATU, a rich and fine place, with great trade and manufactures. The people are Idolaters and subjects of the Great Kaan, and have paper-money, and they have a river which I can a.s.sure you brings them great gain, and I will tell you about it.
You see the river in question flows from the South to this city of Sinjumatu. And the people of the city have divided this larger river in two, making one half of it flow east and the other half flow west; that is to say, the one branch flows towards Manzi and the other towards Cathay.
And it is a fact that the number of vessels at this city is what no one would believe without seeing them. The quant.i.ty of merchandize also which these vessels transport to Manzi and Cathay is something marvellous; and then they return loaded with other merchandize, so that the amount of goods borne to and fro on those two rivers is quite astonishing.[NOTE 1]
NOTE 1.--Friar Odoric, proceeding by water northward to Cambaluc about 1324-1325, says: "As I travelled by that river towards the east, and pa.s.sed many towns and cities, I came to a certain city which is called SUNZUMATU, which hath a greater plenty of silk than perhaps any place on earth, for when silk is at the dearest you can still have 40 lbs. for less than eight groats. There is in the place likewise great store of merchandise," etc. When commenting on Odoric, I was inclined to identify this city with Lin-t"sing chau, but its position with respect to the two last cities in Polo"s itinerary renders this inadmissible; and Murray and Pauthier seem to be right in identifying it with T"SI-NING CHAU. The affix _Matu_ (_Ma-t"eu_, a jetty, a place of river trade) might easily attach itself to the name of such a great depot of commerce on the ca.n.a.l as Marco here describes, though no Chinese authority has been produced for its being so styled. The only objection to the identification with T"si-ning chau is the difficulty of making 3 days" journey of the short distance between Yen-chau and that city.
Polo, according to the route supposed, comes first upon the artificial part of the Great Ca.n.a.l here. The rivers _Wen_ and _Sse_ (from near Yen-chau) flowing from the side of Shan-tung, and striking the ca.n.a.l line at right angles near T"si-ning chau, have been thence diverted north-west and south-east, so as to form the ca.n.a.l; the point of their original confluence at Nan-w.a.n.g forming, apparently, the summit level of the ca.n.a.l.
There is a little confusion in Polo"s account, owing to his describing the river as coming from the _south_, which, according to his orientation, would be the side towards Hunan. In this respect his words would apply more accurately to the _Wei_ River at Lin-t"sing (see _Biot_ in _J. As._ ser.
III. tom. xiv. 194, and _J.N.C.B.R.A.S._, 1866, p. ii; also the map with ch. lxiv.) [Father Gandar (_Ca.n.a.l Imperial_, p. 22, note) says that the remark of Marco Polo: "The river flows from the south to this city of Sinjumatu," cannot be applied to the _Wen-ho_ nor to the _Sse-ho_, which are rivers of little importance and running from the east, whilst the _Wei-ho_, coming from the south-east, waters Lin-ts"ing, and answers well to our traveller"s text.--H.C.] Duhalde calls T"si-ning chau "one of the most considerable cities of the empire"; and Nieuhoff speaks of its large trade and population. [Sir John F. Davis writes that Tsi-ning chau is a town of considerable dimensions.... "The _ma-tow_, or platforms, before the princ.i.p.al boats had ornamental gateways over them.... The ca.n.a.l seems to render this an opulent and flourishing place, to judge by the gilded and carved shops, temples, and public offices, along the eastern banks."
(Sketches of China, I. pp. 255-257.)--H.C.]
CHAPTER LXIII.
CONCERNING THE CITIES OF LINJU AND PIJU.
On leaving the city of Sinju-matu you travel for eight days towards the south, always coming to great and rich towns and villages flourishing with trade and manufactures. The people are all subjects of the Great Kaan, use paper-money, and burn their dead. At the end of those eight days you come to the city of LINJU, in the province of the same name of which it is the capital. It is a rich and n.o.ble city, and the men are good soldiers, natheless they carry on great trade and manufactures. There is great abundance of game in both beasts and birds, and all the necessaries of life are in profusion. The place stands on the river of which I told you above. And they have here great numbers of vessels, even greater than those of which I spoke before, and these transport a great amount of costly merchandize[NOTE 1].