Four seven-day weeks were within a day and a fraction of the lunar month, which was the nearest that could be got. The first method of measuring the year would be by twelve lunar months, which would bring it back nearly to the same period. But as the lunar month is 29 days 13 hours, twelve months would be 354 days 12 hours, or nearly eleven days less than the tropical solar year. Hence if the lunar year was retained the months would move back round the year by about eleven days annually. This is what actually happens in the Muhammadan calendar where the twelve lunar months have been retained and the Muharram and other festivals come earlier every year by about eleven days.
11. Intercalary months.
In order to reconcile the lunar and solar years the Hindus. .h.i.t upon an ingenious device. It was ordained that any month in which the sun did not enter a new sign of the zodiac would not count and would be followed by another month of the same name. Thus in the month of Chait the sun must enter the sign Mesha or Aries. If he does not enter it during the lunar month there will be an intercalary Chait, followed by the proper month of the same name during which the sun will enter Mesha. [218] Such an intercalary month is called Adhika. An intercalary month, obtained by having two successive lunar months of the same name, occurs approximately once in three years, and by this means the reckoning by twelve lunar months is adjusted to the solar year. On the other hand, the sun very occasionally pa.s.ses two Sankrants or enters into two fresh signs during the lunar month. This is rendered possible by the fact that the time occupied by the sun in pa.s.sing through different signs of the zodiac varies to some extent. It is said that the zodiac was divided into twelve equal signs of 30 each or 1 for each day, as at this period it was considered that the year was 360 days. [219] Possibly in adjusting the signs to 365 odd days some alterations may have been made in their length, or errors discovered. At any rate, whatever may be the reason, the length of the sun"s periods in the signs, or of the solar months, varies from 31 days 14 hours to 29 days 8 hours. Three of the months are less than the lunar month, and hence it is possible that two Sankrants or pa.s.sages of the sun into a fresh sign may occasionally occur in the same lunar month. When this happens, following the same rule as before, the month to which the second Sankrant properly belongs, that is the one following that in which two Sankrants occur, is called a Kshaya or eliminated month and is omitted from the calendar. Intercalary months occur generally in the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 16th and 18th years of a cycle of nineteen years, or seven times in nineteen years. It is found that in each successive cycle only one or two months are changed, so that the same month remains intercalary for several cycles of nineteen years and then gives way generally to one of the months preceding and rarely to the following month. Suppressed months occur at intervals varying from 19 to 141 years, and in a year when a suppressed month occurs there must always be one intercalary month and not infrequently there are two. [220]
This method of adjusting the solar and lunar years, though clumsy, is so far scientific that the solar and lunar years are made to agree without any artificial intercalation of days. It has, however, the great disadvantages of the frequent intercalary month, and also of the fact that the lunar months begin on different dates in the English solar calendar, varying by nearly twenty days.
12. Superst.i.tions about numbers.
It seems not improbable that the unlucky character of the number thirteen may have arisen from its being the number of the intercalary month. Though the special superst.i.tion against sitting down thirteen to a meal is, no doubt, a.s.sociated particularly with the Last Supper, the number is generally unlucky as a date and in other connections. And this is not only the case in Europe, but the Hindus, Persians and Parsis also consider thirteen an unlucky number; and the Muhammadans account for a similar superst.i.tion by saying that Muhammad was ill for the first thirteen days of the month Safar. Twelve, as being the number of the months in the lunar and solar years, is an auspicious number; thirteen would be one extra, and as being the intercalary month would be here this year and missing next year. Hence it might be supposed that one of thirteen persons met together would be gone at their next meeting like the month. Similarly, the auspicious character of the number seven may be due to its being the total of the sun, moon and five planets, and of the days of the week named after them. And the number three may have been invested with mystic significance as representing the sun, moon and earth. In the Hindu Trinity Vishnu and Siva are the sun and moon, and Brahma, who created the earth, and has since remained quiescent, may have been the personified representative of the earth itself.
13. The Hindu months.
The names of the Hindu months were selected from among those of the nakshatras, every second or third being taken and the most important constellations apparently chosen. The following statement shows the current names for the months, the nakshatras from which they are derived, and the constellations they represent:
Month. Nakshatra. Constellation.
1. Chait. Chitra. Virgo.
2. Baisakh. Visacha. Libra.
3. Jeth. Jyestha. Scorpio.
4. Asarh. Purva Ashadha. Sagittarius.
Uttara Ashadha.
5. Shrawan. Sravana. Aquila.
6. Bhadon. Purva (E) Bhadrapada. Pegasus.
Uttara (N) Bhadrapada.
7. Kunwar or Aswini. Aries.
Aswin.
8. Kartik. Krittika. Pleiades (Part of Taurus).
9. Aghan or Mrigasiras. Orion.
Margashir.
10. Pus. Pushya. Cancer.
11. Magh. Magha. Leo.
12. Phagun. Purva (E) Phalguni. Leo.
Uttara (N) Phalguni.
Thus if the Pleiades are reckoned as part of Taurus, [221] eight zodiacal signs give their names to months as well as Orion, Pegasus and Aquila, while two months are included in Leo. It appears that in former times the year began with Pus or December, as the month Margashir was also called Aghan or Agrahana, or "That which went before," that is the month before the new year. But the renewal of vegetation in the spring has exercised a very powerful effect on the primitive mind, being marked by the Holi festival in India, corresponding to the Carnival in Europe. The vernal equinox was thus perhaps selected as the most important occasion and the best date for beginning the new year, which now commences in northern India with the new moon of Chait, immediately following the Holi festival, when the sun is in the sign of Mesha or Aries. At first the months appear to have travelled round the year, but subsequently they were fixed by ordaining that the month of Chait should begin with the new moon during the course of which the sun entered the sign Aries. [222]
The constellation Chitra, from which the sign is named, is nearly opposite to this in the zodiac, as shown by the above figure. [223]
Consequently, the full moon, being nearly opposite the sun on the ecliptic, would be in the sign Chitra or near it. In southern India the months begin with the full moon, but in northern India with the new moon; it seems possible that the months were called after the nakshatra, of the full moon to distinguish them from the solar months which would be called after the sign of the zodiac in which the sun was. But no authoritative explanation seems to be available. Similarly, the nakshatras after which the other months are named, fall nearly opposite to them at the new moon, while the full moon would be in or near them.
14. The solar nakshatras.
The periods during which the sun pa.s.ses through each nakshatra are also recorded, and they are of course constant in date like the solar months. As there are twenty-seven nakshatras, the average time spent by the sun in each is about 13 1/2 days. These periods are well known to the people as they have the advantage of not varying in date like the lunar months, while over most of India the solar months are not used. The commencement of the various agricultural operations is dated by the solar nakshatras, and there are several proverbs about them in connection with the crops. The following are some examples: "If it does not rain in Pushya and Punarvasu Nakshatras the children of Nimar will go without food." "Rain in Magha Nakshatra (end of August) is like food given by a mother," because it is so beneficial. "If there is no wind in Mrigasiras (beginning of June), and no heat in Rohini (end of May), sell your plough-cattle and go and look for work." "If it rains during Uttara (end of September) dogs will turn up their noses at grain," because the harvest will be so abundant. "If it rains during Aslesha (first half of August) the wheat-stalks will be as stout as drum-sticks" (because the land will be well ploughed). "If rain falls in Chitra or Swati Nakshatras (October) there won"t be enough cotton for lamp-wicks."
15. Lunar fortnights and days.
The lunar month was divided into two fortnights called paksha or wing. The period of the waxing moon was known as sukla or sudi paksha, that is the light fortnight, and that of the waning moon as krishna or budi paksha, that is the dark fortnight.
Each lunar month was also divided into thirty equal periods, called t.i.this or lunar days. Since there are less than thirty days in the lunar month, a t.i.thi does not correspond to an ordinary day, but begins and ends at odd hours of the day. Nevertheless the t.i.this are printed in all almanacs, and are used for the calculation of auspicious moments. [224]
16. Divisions of the day.
The day is divided for ordinary purposes of measuring time into eight pahars or watches, four of the day and four of the night; and into sixty gharis or periods of twenty-four minutes each. The pahars, however, are not of equal length. At the equinox the first and fourth pahar of the day and night each contain eight gharis, and the two middle ones seven gharis. In summer the first and fourth pahars of the day contain nine gharis each, and the two middle ones eight each, while the first and fourth pahars of the night contain seven and the two middle ones six each. Thus in summer the four day pahars contain 13 hours 36 minutes and the night ones 10 hours 24 minutes. And in winter the exact opposite is the case, the night pahars being lengthened and the day ones shortened in precisely the same manner. No more unsatisfactory measure of time could well be devised. The termination of the second watch or do pahar always corresponds with midday and midnight respectively.
The apparatus with which the hours were measured and announced consisted of a shallow metal pan, named from its office, gharial, and suspended so as to be easily struck with a wooden mallet by the ghariali. He measured the pa.s.sing of a ghari by an empty thin bra.s.s cup or katori, perforated at the bottom, and placed on the surface of a large vessel filled with water, where nothing could disturb it; the water came through the small hole in the bottom of the cup and filled it, causing it to sink in the period of one ghari. At the expiration of each ghari the gharial struck its number from one to nine with a mallet on a bra.s.s plate, and at the end of each pahar he struck a gujar or eight strokes to announce the fact, followed by one to four hollow-sounding strokes to indicate the number of the pahar. This custom is still preserved in the method by which the police-guards of the public offices announce the hours on a gong and subsequently strike four, eight and twelve strokes to proclaim these hours of the day and night by our clock. Only rich men could afford to maintain a gharial, as four persons were required to attend to it during the day and four at night. [225]
17. The Joshi"s calculations.
The Joshi calculates auspicious [226] seasons by a consideration of the sun"s zodiacal sign, the moon"s nakshatra or daily mansion, and other rules. From the monthly zodiacal signs and daily nakshatras in which children are born, as recorded in their horoscopes, he calculates whether their marriage will be auspicious. Thus the zodiacal signs are supposed to be divided among the four castes, Pisces, Cancer and Scorpio belonging to the Brahman; Aries, Leo and Sagittarius to the Kshatriya; Taurus, Virgo and Capricorn to the Vaishya; and Gemini, Libra and Aquarius to the Sudra. If the boy and girl were born under any of the three signs of the same caste it is a happy conjunction. If the boy"s sign was of a caste superior to the girl"s, it is suitable, but if the girl"s sign is of a superior caste to the boy"s it is an omen that she will rule the household; and though the marriage may take place, certain ceremonies should be performed to obviate this effect. There is also a division of the zodiacal signs according to their nature. Thus Virgo, Libra, Gemini, Aquarius and half of Sagittarius are considered to be of the nature of man, or formed by him; Aries, Taurus, half of Sagittarius and half of Capricorn are of the nature of animals; Cancer, Pisces and half of Capricorn are of a watery nature; Leo is of the desert or wild nature; and Scorpio is of the nature of insects. If the boy and girl were both born under signs of the same nature their marriage will be auspicious, but if they were born under signs of different natures, they will share only half the blessings and comforts of the marriage state, and may be visited by strife, enmity, misery or distress. As Leo and Scorpio are looked upon as being enemies, evil consequences are much dreaded from the marriage of a couple born under these signs. There are also numerous rules regarding the nakshatras or mansions of the moon and days of the week under which the boy and girl were born, but these need not be reproduced. If on the day of the wedding the sun or any of the planets pa.s.ses from one zodiacal sign to another, the wedding must be delayed for a certain number of gharis or periods of twenty-four minutes, the number varying for each planet. The hours of the day are severally appointed to the seven planets and the twelve zodiacal signs, and the period of ascendancy of a sign is known as lagan; this name is also given to the paper specifying the day and hour which have been calculated as auspicious for the wedding. It is stated that no weddings should be celebrated during the period of occultation of the planets Jupiter and Venus, nor on the day before new moon, nor the Sankrant or day on which the sun pa.s.ses from one zodiacal sign to another, nor in the Singhast year, when the planet Jupiter is in the constellation Leo. This takes place once in twelve years. Marriages are usually prohibited during the four months of the rainy season, and sometimes also in Pus, Jeth or other months.
18. Personal names.
The Joshi names children according to the moon"s daily nakshatra under which they were born, each nakshatra having a letter or certain syllables allotted to it with which the name must begin. Thus Magha has the syllables Ma, Mi, Mu and Me, with which the name should begin, as Mansaram, Mithu Lal, Mukund Singh, Meghnath; Purwa Phalguni has Mo and Te, as Moji Lal and Tegi Lal; Punarvasu has Ke, Ko, Ha and Hi, as Kesho Rao, Koshal Prasad, Hardyal and Hira Lal, and so on. The primitive idea connecting a name with the thing or person to which it belongs is that the name is actually a concrete part of the person or object, containing part of his life, just as the hair, nails and all the body are believed to contain part of the life, which is not at first localised in any part of the body nor conceived of as separate from it. The primitive mind could conceive no abstract idea, that is nothing that could not be seen or heard, and it could not think of a name as an abstract appellation. The name was thought of as part of that to which it was applied. Thus, if one knew a man"s name, it was thought that one could use it to injure him, just as if one had a piece of his hair or nails he could be injured through them because they all contained part of his life; and if a part of the life was injured or destroyed the remainder would also suffer injury, just as the whole body might perish if a limb was cut off. For this reason savages often conceal their real names, so as to prevent an enemy from obtaining power to injure them through its knowledge. By a development of the same belief it was thought that the names of G.o.ds and saints contained part of the divine life and potency of the G.o.d or saint to whom they were applied. And even separated from the original owner the name retained that virtue which it had acquired in a.s.sociation; hence the power a.s.signed to the names of G.o.ds and superhuman beings when used in spells and incantations. Similarly, if the name of a G.o.d or saint was given to a child it was thought that some part of the nature and virtue of the G.o.d might be conferred on the child. Thus Hindu children are most commonly named after G.o.ds and G.o.ddesses under the influence of this idea; and though the belief may now have decayed the practice continues. Similarly the common Muhammadan names are epithets of Allah or G.o.d or of the Prophet and his relations. Jewish children are named after the Jewish patriarchs. In European countries the most common male names are those of the Apostles, as John, Peter, James, Paul, Simon, Andrew and Thomas; and the names of the Evangelists were, until recently, also given. The most common girl"s name in several European countries is Mary, and a generation or two ago other Biblical names, as Sarah, Hannah, Ruth, Rachel, and so on, were very usually given to girls. In England the names next in favour for boys and girls are those of kings and queens, and the same idea perhaps originally underlay the application of these names. The following are some of the best-known Hindu names, taken from those of G.o.ds:--
Names of Vishnu.
Narayan. Probably "The abode of mortals," or else "He who dwelt on the waters (before creation)"; now applied to the sun.
Waman. The dwarf, one of Vishnu"s incarnations.
Janardan. Said to mean protector of the people.
Narsingh. The man-lion, one of Vishnu"s incarnations.
Hari. Yellow or gold-colour or green. Perhaps applied to the sun.