10. Connection with Hinduism.
In other respects the Jains closely resemble the Hindus. Brahmans are often employed at their weddings, they reverence the cow, worship sometimes in Hindu temples, go on pilgrimages to the Hindu sacred places, and follow the Hindu law of inheritance. The Agarwal Bania Jains and Hindus will take food cooked with water together and intermarry in Bundelkhand, although it is doubtful whether they do this in the Central Provinces. In such a case each party pays a fine to the Jain temple fund. In respect of caste distinctions the Jains are now scarcely less strict than the Hindus. The different Jain subcastes of Banias coming from Bundelkhand will take food together as a rule, and those from Marwar will do the same. The Khandelwal and Oswal Jain Banias will take food cooked with water together when it has been cooked by an old woman past the age of child-bearing, but not that cooked by a young woman. The spread of education has awakened an increased interest among the Jains in their scriptures and the tenets of their religion, and it is quite likely that the tendency to conform to Hinduism in caste matters and ceremonies may receive a check on this account. [278]
11. Temple and car festival.
The Jains display great zeal in the construction of temples in which the images of the Tirthakars are enshrined. The temples are commonly of the same fashion as those of the Hindus, with a short, roughly conical spire tapering to a point at the apex, but they are frequently adorned with rich carved stone and woodwork. There are fine collections of temples at Muktagiri in Betul, Kundalpur in Damoh, and at Mount Abu, Girnar, the hill of Parasnath in Chota Nagpur, and other places in India. The best Jain temples are often found in very remote spots, and it is suggested that they were built at times when the Jains had to hide in such places to avoid Hindu persecution. And wherever a community of Jain merchants of any size has been settled for a generation or more several fine temples will probably be found. A Jain Bania who has grown rich considers the building of one or more temples to be the best method of expending his money and acquiring religious merit, and some of them spend all their fortune in this manner before their death. At the opening of a new temple the _rath_ or chariot festival should be held. Wooden cars are made, sometimes as much as five stories high, and furnished with chambers for the images of the Tirthakars. In these the idols of the hosts and all the guests are placed. Each car should be drawn by two elephants, and the procession of cars moves seven times round the temple or pavilion erected for the ceremony. For building a temple and performing this ceremony honorary and hereditary t.i.tles are conferred. Those who do it once receive the designation of Singhai; for carrying it out twice they become Sawai Singhai; and on a third occasion Seth. In such a ceremony performed at Khurai in Saugor one of the partic.i.p.ators was already a Seth, and in recognition of his great liberality a new t.i.tle was devised and he became Srimant Seth. It is said, however, that if the car breaks and the elephants refuse to move, the t.i.tle becomes derisive and is either "Lule Singhai," the lame one, or "Arku Singhai," the stumbler. If no elephants are available and the car has to be dragged by men, the t.i.tle given is Kadh.o.r.e Singhai.
12. Images of the Tirthakars.
In the temples are placed the images of Tirthakars, either of bra.s.s, marble, silver or gold. The images may be small or life-size or larger, and the deities are represented in a sitting posture with their legs crossed and their hands lying upturned in front, the right over the left, in the final att.i.tude of contemplation prior to escape from the body and attainment of paradise. There may be several images in one temple, but usually there is only one, though a number of temples are built adjoining each other or round a courtyard. The favourite Tirthakars found in temples are Rishab Deva, the first; Anantnath, the fourteenth; Santnath, the sixteenth; Nemnath, the twenty-second; Parasnath, the twenty-third; and Vardhamana or Mahavira, the twenty-fourth. [279] As already stated only Mahavira and perhaps Parasnath, his preceptor, were real historical personages, and the remainder are mythical. It is noticeable that to each of the Tirthakars is attached a symbol, usually in the shape of an animal, and also a tree, apparently that tree under which the Tirthakar is held to have been seated at the time that he obtained release from the body. And these animals and trees are in most cases those which are also revered and held sacred by the Hindus. Thus the sacred animal of Rishab Deva is the bull, and his tree the banyan; that of Anantnath is the falcon or bear, and his tree the holy Asoka; [280]
that of Santnath is the black-buck or Indian antelope, and his tree the _tun_ or cedar; [281] the symbol of Nemnath is the conch sh.e.l.l (sacred to Vishnu), but his tree, the _vetasa_, is not known; the animal of Parasnath is the serpent or cobra and his tree the _dhataki_; [282] and the animal of Mahavira is the lion or tiger and his tree the teak tree. Among the symbols of the other Tirthakars are the elephant, horse, rhinoceros, boar, ape, the Brahmani duck, the moon, the pipal tree, the lotus and the _swastik_ figure; and among their trees the mango, the _jamun_ [283] and the _champak_. [284] Most of these animals and trees are sacred to the Hindus, and the elephant, boar, ape, cobra and tiger were formerly worshipped themselves, and are now attached to the princ.i.p.al Hindu G.o.ds. Similarly the asoka, pipal, banyan and mango trees are sacred, and also the Brahmani duck and the _swastik_ sign. It cannot be supposed that the Tirthakars simply represent the deified anthropomorphic emanations from these animals, because the object of Vardhamana"s preaching was perhaps like that of Buddha to do away with the promiscuous polytheism of the Hindu religion. But nevertheless the a.s.sociation of the sacred animals and trees with the Tirthakars furnished a strong connecting link between them and the Hindu G.o.ds, and considerably lessens the opposition between the two systems of worship. The G.o.d Indra is also frequently found sculptured as an attendant guardian in the Jain temples. The fourteenth Tirthakar, Anantnath, is especially revered by the people because he is identified with Gautama Buddha.
13. Religious observances.
The priest of a Jain temple is not usually a Yati or ascetic, but an ordinary member of the community. He receives no remuneration and carries on his business at the same time. He must know the Jain scriptures, and makes recitations from them when the worshippers are a.s.sembled. The Jain will ordinarily visit a temple and see the G.o.d every morning before taking his food, and his wife often goes with him. If there is no temple in their own town or village they will go to another, provided that it is within a practicable distance. The offerings made at the temple consist of rice, almonds, cocoanuts, betel-leaves, areca, dates, cardamoms, cloves and similar articles. These are appropriated by the Hindu Mali or gardener, who is the menial servant employed to keep the temple and enclosures clean. The Jain will not take back or consume himself anything which has been offered to the G.o.d. Offerings of money are also made, and these go into the _bhandar_ or fund for maintenance of the temple. The Jains observe fasts for the last week before the new moon in the months of Phagun (February), Asarh (June) and Kartik (October). They also fast on the second, fifth, eighth, eleventh and fourteenth days in each fortnight of the four months of the rains from Asarh to Kartik, this being in lieu of the more rigorous fast of the ascetics during the rains. On these days they eat only once, and do not eat any green vegetables. After the week"s fast at the end of Kartik, at the commencement of the month of Aghan, the Jains begin to eat all green vegetables.
14. Tenderness for animal life.
The great regard for animal life is the most marked feature of the Jain religion among the laity as well as the clergy. The former do not go to such extremes as the latter, but make it a practice not to eat food after sunset or before sunrise, owing to the danger of swallowing insects. Now that their beliefs are becoming more rational, however, and the irksome nature of this rule is felt, they sometimes place a lamp with a sieve over it to produce rays of light, and consider that this serves as a subst.i.tute for the sun. Formerly they maintained animal hospitals in which all kinds of animals and reptiles, including monkeys, poultry and other birds were kept and fed, and any which had broken a limb or sustained other injuries were admitted and treated. These were known as _pinjrapol_ or places of protection. [285]
A similar inst.i.tution was named _jivuti_, and consisted of a small domed building with a hole at the top large enough for a man to creep in, and here weevils and other insects which the Jains might find in their food were kept and provided with grain. [286] In Rajputana, where rich Jains probably had much influence, considerable deference was paid to their objections to the death of any living thing. Thus a Mewar edict of A.D. 1693 directed that no one might carry animals for slaughter past their temples or houses. Any man or animal led past a Jain house for the purpose of being killed was thereby saved and set at liberty. Traitors, robbers or escaped prisoners who fled for sanctuary to the dwelling of a Jain Yati or ascetic could not be seized there by the officers of the court. And during the four rainy months, when insects were most common, the potter"s wheel and Teli"s oil-press might not be worked on account of the number of insects which would be destroyed by them. [287]
15. Social condition of the Jains.
As they are nearly all of the Bania caste the Jains are usually prosperous, and considering its small size, the standard of wealth in the community is probably very high for India, the total number of Jains in the country being about half a million. Beggars are rare, and, like the Parsis and Europeans, the Jains feeling themselves a small isolated body in the midst of a large alien population, have a special tenderness for their poorer members, and help them in more than the ordinary degree. Most of the Jain Banias are grain-dealers and moneylenders like other Banias. Cultivation is prohibited by their religion, owing to the destruction of animal life which it involves, but in Saugor, and also in the north of India, many of them have now taken to it, and some plough with their own hands. Mr. Marten notes [288] that the Jains are beginning to put their wealth to a more practical purpose than the lavish erection and adornment of temples. Schools and boarding-houses for boys and girls of their religion are being opened, and they subscribe liberally for the building of medical inst.i.tutions. It may be hoped that this movement will continue and gather strength, both for the advantage of the Jains themselves and the country generally.
Kabirpanthi
[_Bibliography_: Right Reverend G. H. Westcott, _Kabir and the Kabirpanth_, Cawnpore, 1907; _Asiatic Researches_, vol. xvi. pp. 53-75 (Wilson"s _Hindu Sects_); Mr. Crooke"s _Tribes and Castes_, article Kabirpanthi; _Central Provinces Census Report_ (1891), Sir B. Robertson.]
List of Paragraphs
1. _Life of Kabir_.
2. _Kabir"s teachings_.
3. _His sayings_.
4. _The Kabirpanthi sect in the Central Provinces_.
5. _The religious service_.
6. _Initiation_.
7. _Funeral rites_.
8. _Idol worship_.
9. _Statistics of the sect_.
1. Life of Kabir.
_Kabirpanthi Sect_.--A well-known religious sect founded by the reformer Kabir, who flourished in the fifteenth century, and is called by Dr. Hunter the Luther of India. The sect has now split into two branches, the headquarters of one of these being at Benares, and of the other at Kawardha, or Damakheda in Raipur. Bishop Westcott gives the date of Kabir"s life as A.D. 1440--1518, while Mr. Crooke states that he flourished between 1488 and 1512. Numerous legends are now told about him; thus, according to one of these, he was the son of a virgin Brahman widow, who had been taken at her request to see the great reformer Ramanand. He, unaware of her condition, saluted her with the benediction which he thought acceptable to all women, and wished her the conception of a son. His words could not be recalled, and the widow conceived, but, in order to escape the disgrace which would attach to her, exposed the child, who was Kabir. He was found by a Julaha or Muhammadan weaver and his wife, and brought up by them. The object of this story is probably to connect Kabir with Ramanand as his successor in reformation and spiritual heir; because the Ramanandis are an orthodox Vaishnava sect, while the Kabirpanthis, if they adhered to all Kabir"s preaching, must be considered as quite outside the pale of Hinduism. To make out that Kabir came into the world by Ramanand"s act provides him at any rate with an orthodox spiritual lineage. For the same reason [289] the date of Kabir"s birth is sometimes advanced as early as 1398 in order to bring it within the period of Ramanand"s lifetime (_circa_ 1300-1400). Another story is that the deity took mortal shape as a child without birth, and was found by a newly-married weaver"s wife lying in a lotus flower on a tank, like Moses in the bulrushes. Bishop Westcott thus describes the event: "A feeling of thirst overcame Nima, the newly-wedded wife of Niru, the weaver, as after the marriage ceremony she was making her way to her husband"s house. She approached the tank, but was much afraid when she there beheld the child. She thought in her heart, "This is probably the living evidence of the shame of some virgin widow." Niru suggested that they might take the child to their house, but Nima at first demurred, thinking that such action might give rise to scandal. Women would ask, "Who is the mother of a child so beautiful that its eyes are like the lotus?" However, laying aside all fears, they took pity on the child. On approaching the house they were welcomed with the songs of women, but when the women saw the child dark thoughts arose in their heads, and they began to ask, "How has she got this child?" Nima replied that she had got the child without giving birth to it, and the women then refrained from asking further questions." It is at any rate a point generally agreed on that Kabir was brought up in the house of a Muhammadan weaver. It is said that he became the _chela_ or disciple of Ramanand, but this cannot be true, as Ramanand was dead before his birth. It seems probable that he was married, and had two children named Kamal and Kamali. Bishop Westcott states [290] that the _Kabir Kasauti_ explains the story of his supposed marriage by the fact that he had a girl disciple named Loi, a foundling brought up by a holy man; she followed his precepts, and coming to Benares, pa.s.sed her time in the service of the saints. Afterwards Kabir raised two children from the dead and gave them to Loi to bring up, and the ignorant suppose that these were his wife and children. Such a statement would appear to indicate that Kabir was really married, but after his sect had become important, this fact was felt to be a blot on his claim to be a divine prophet, and so was explained away in the above fashion.
The plain speaking of Kabir and his general disregard for religious conventions excited the enmity of both Hindus and Muhammadans, and he was accused before the Emperor Sikandar Lodi, by whose orders various attempts were made to kill him; but he was miraculously preserved in each case, until at last the Emperor acknowledged his divine character, asked his forgiveness, and expressed his willingness to undergo any punishment that he might name. To this Kabir replied that a man should sow flowers for those who had sown him thorns. Bishop Westcott continues:--"All accounts agree that the earthly life of Kabir came to a close at Maghar, in the District of Gorakhpur. Tradition relates that Kabir died in extreme old age, when his body had become infirm and his hands were no longer able to produce the music with which he had in younger days celebrated the praises of Rama.
"A difficulty arose with regard to the disposal of his body after death. The Muhammadans desired to bury it and the Hindus to cremate it. As the rival parties discussed the question with growing warmth Kabir himself appeared and bade them raise the cloth in which the body lay enshrouded. They did as he commanded, and lo! beneath the cloth there lay but a heap of flowers. Of these flowers the Hindus removed half and burnt them at Benares, while what remained were buried at Maghar by the Muhammadans."
2. Kabir"s teachings.
The religion preached by Kabir was of a lofty character. He rejected the divine inspiration of the Vedas and the whole Hindu mythology. He taught that there was no virtue in outward observances such as shaving the head, ceremonial purity and impurity, and circ.u.mcision among Muhammadans. He condemned the worship of idols and the use of sect-marks and religious amulets, but in all ordinary matters allowed his followers to conform to usage in order to avoid giving offence. He abolished distinctions of caste. He enjoined a virtuous life, just conduct and kindly behaviour and much meditation on the virtues of G.o.d. He also condemned the love of money and gain. In fact, in many respects his creed resembles Christianity, just as the life of Kabir contains one or two episodes parallel to that of Christ. He prescribed obedience to the Guru or spiritual preceptor in all matters of faith and morals. His religion appears to have been somewhat of a pantheistic character and his idea of the deity rather vague. But he considered that the divine essence was present in all human beings, and apparently that those who freed themselves from sin and the trammels of worldly desires would ultimately be absorbed into the G.o.dhead. It does not seem that Kabir made any exact p.r.o.nouncement on the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and re-birth, but as he laid great stress on avoiding the destruction of any animal life, a precept which is to some extent the outcome of the belief in transmigration, he may have concurred in this tenet. Some Kabirpanthis, however, have discarded transmigration. Bishop Westcott states that they do believe in the re-birth of the soul after an intervening period of reward or punishment, but always apparently in a human body.
3. His sayings
He would seem never to have promulgated any definite account of his own religion, nor did he write anything himself. He uttered a large number of Sakhis or apothegms which were recorded by his disciples in the Bijak, Sukhanidhan and other works, and are very well known and often quoted by Kabirpanthis and others. The influence of Kabir extended beyond his own sect. Nanak, the founder of the Nanakpanthis and Sikhs, was indebted to Kabir for most of his doctrine, and the Adi-Granth or first sacred book of the Sikhs is largely compiled from his sayings. Other sects such as the Dadupanthis also owe much to him. A small selection of his sayings from those recorded by Bishop Westcott may be given in ill.u.s.tration of their character:
1. Adding cowrie to cowrie he brings together lakhs and crores.
At the time of his departure he gets nothing at all, even his loin-cloth is plucked away.
2. Fire does not burn it, the wind does not carry it away, no thief comes near it; collect the wealth of the name of Rama, that wealth is never lost.
3. By force and love circ.u.mcision is made, I shall not agree to it, O brother. If G.o.d will make me a Turk by Him will I be circ.u.mcised; if a man becomes a Turk by being circ.u.mcised what shall be done with a woman? She must remain a Hindu.