_Brahmo Samaj Religion_.--This monotheistic sect of Bengal numbered only thirty-two adherents in the Central Provinces in 1911, of whom all or nearly all were probably Bengalis. Nevertheless its history is of great interest as representing an attempt at the reform and purification of Hinduism under the influence of Christianity. The founder of the sect, Ram Mohan Roy, a Brahman, was born in 1772 and died in England in 1833. He was sent to school at Patna, where under the influence of Muhammadan teachers he learnt to despise the extravagant stories of the Puranas. At the age of sixteen he composed a tract against idolatry, which stirred up such a feeling of animosity against him that he had to leave his home. He betook himself first to Benares, where he received instruction in the Vedas from the Brahmans. From there he went to Tibet, that he might learn the tenets of Buddhism from its adherents rather than its opponents; his genuine desire to form a fair judgment of the merits of every creed being further evidenced by his learning the language in which each of these finds its expression: thus he learnt Sanskrit that he might rightly understand the Vedas, Pali that he might read the Buddhist Tripitaka, Arabic as the key to the Koran, and Hebrew and Greek for the Old and New Testaments. [249] In 1819, after a diligent study of the Bible, he published a book ent.i.tled _The Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness._ Although this work was eminently appreciative of the character and teaching of Christ, it gave rise to an attack from the missionaries of Serampore. Strange to say, Ram Mohan Roy so far converted his tutor Mr. Adam (himself a missionary) to his own way of thinking that that gentleman relinquished his spiritual office, became editor of the _Indian Gazette,_ and was generally known in Calcutta as "The second fallen Adam." [250]
2. Much esteemed by the English.
Ram Mohan Roy was held in great esteem by his English contemporaries in India. He dispensed in charities the bulk of his private means, living himself with the strictest economy in order that he might have the more to give away. It was to a considerable extent due to his efforts, and more especially to his demonstration that the practice of Sati found no sanction in the Vedas, that this abominable rite was declared illegal by Lord William Bentinck in 1829. The t.i.tular emperor of Delhi conferred the t.i.tle of Raja upon him in 1830 and induced him to proceed to England on a mission to the Home Government. He was the first Brahman who had crossed the sea, and his distinguished appearance, agreeable manners, and undoubtedly great ability, coupled with his sympathy for Christianity, procured him a warm welcome in England, where he died in 1833. [251]
3. Foundation of the Brahmo Samaj.
Ram Mohan Roy, with the help of a few friends and disciples, founded, in 1830, the Brahmo Samaj or Society of G.o.d. In the trust deed of the meeting-house it was laid down that the society was founded for "the worship and adoration of the eternal, unsearchable and immutable Being who is the Author and Preserver of the Universe, but not by any other name, designation or t.i.tle peculiarly used by any men or set of men; and that in conducting the said worship and adoration, no object, animate or inanimate, that has been or is or shall hereafter become ... an object of worship by any men or set of men, shall be reviled or slightingly or contemptuously spoken of or alluded to either in preaching, or in the hymns or other mode of worship that may be delivered or used in the said messuage or building." [252]
This well exemplifies the broad toleration and liberality of the sect. The service in the new theistic church consisted in the recital of the Vedas by two Telugu Brahmans, the reading of texts from the Upanishads, and the expounding of the same in Bengali. The Samaj, thus const.i.tuted, based its teaching on the Vedas and was at this time, though unorthodox, still a Hindu sect, and made no attempt at the abolition of caste. "Indeed, in establishing this sect, Ram Mohan Roy professed to be leading his countrymen back to the pure, uncorrupted, monotheistic religion of their Vedic ancestors; but his monotheism, based, as it was, essentially upon the Vedanta philosophy, was in reality but a disguised Pantheism, enriched as regards its ethics by ideas derived from Muslim and Christian literature and theology." [253]
4. Debendra Nath Tagore.
After the death of its founder the sect languished for a period of ten years until it was taken in hand by Debendra Nath Tagore, whose father Dwarka Nath had been a friend and warm admirer of Ram Mohan Roy, and had practically maintained the society by paying its expenses during the interval. In 1843 Debendra drew up a form of initiation which involved the renunciation of idolatry. He established branches of the Brahmo Samaj in many towns and villages of Bengal, and in 1845 he sent four Pandits to Benares to copy out and make a special study of the Vedas. On their return to Calcutta after two years Debendra Nath devoted himself with their aid to a diligent and critical study of the sacred books, and eventually, after much controversy and even danger of disruption, the Samaj, under his guidance, came to the important decision that the teaching of the Vedas could not be reconciled with the conclusions of modern science or with the religious convictions of the Brahmos, a result which soon led to an open and public denial of the infallibility of the Vedas.
"There is nothing," Professor Oman remarks, "in the Brahmic movement more creditable to the parties concerned than this honest and careful inquiry into the nature of the doctrines and precepts of the Vedas." [254]
5. Keshub Chandar Sen.
The tenets of the Brahmo Samaj consisted at this time of a pure theism, without special reliance on the Hindu sacred books or recognition of such Hindu doctrines as the transmigration of souls. But in their ordinary lives its members still conformed generally to the caste practices and religious usages of their neighbours. But a progressive party now arose under the leadership of Keshub Chandar Sen, a young man of the Vaidya caste, which desired to break altogether with Hinduism, abolish the use of sect marks and the prohibition of intermarriage between castes, and to welcome into the community converts from all religions. Meanwhile Debendra Nath Tagore had spent three years in seclusion in the Himalayas, occupied with meditation and prayer; on his return he acceded so far to the views of Keshub Chandar Sen as to celebrate the marriage of his daughter according to a reformed theistic ritual; but when his friend pressed for the complete abolition of all caste restrictions, Debendra Nath refused his consent and retired once more to the hills. [255] The result was a schism in the community, and in 1866 the progressive party seceded and set up a Samaj of their own, calling themselves the Brahmo Samaj of India, while the conservative group under Debendra Nath Tagore was named the Adi or original Samaj. In 1905 the latter was estimated to number only about 300 persons. [256]
Keshub Chandar Sen had been educated in the Presidency College, Calcutta, and being more familiar with English and the Bible than with the Sanskrit language and Vedic literature, he was filled with deep enthusiastic admiration of the beauty of Christ"s character and teaching. [257] He had shown a strong pa.s.sion for the stage and loved nothing better than the plays of Shakespeare. He was fond of performing himself, and especially delighted in appearing in the role of a magician or conjurer before his family and friends. The new sect took up the position that all religions were true and worthy of veneration. At the inaugural meeting, texts from the sacred scriptures of the Christians, Hindus, Muhammadans, Parsis and Chinese were publicly read, in order to mark and to proclaim to the world the catholicity of spirit in which it was formed. [258]
Keshub by his writings and public lectures kept himself prominently before the Indian world, enlisting the sympathies of the Viceroy (Sir John Lawrence) by his tendencies towards Christianity.
6. The Civil Marriage Act.
By this time several marriages had been performed according to the revised ritual of the Brahmic Church, which had given great offence to orthodox Hindus and exposed the partic.i.p.ators in these novel rites to much obloquy. The legality of marriages thus contracted had even been questioned. To avoid this difficulty Keshub induced Government in 1872 to pa.s.s the Native Marriage Act, introducing for the first time the inst.i.tution of civil marriage into Hindu society. The Act prescribed a form of marriage to be celebrated before the Registrar for persons who did not profess either the Hindu, the Muhammadan, the Parsi, the Sikh, the Jaina or the Buddhist religion, and who were neither Christians nor Jews; and fixed the minimum age for a bridegroom at eighteen and for a bride at fourteen. Only six years later, however, Keshub Chandar Sen committed the fatal mistake of ignoring the law which he had himself been instrumental in pa.s.sing: he permitted the marriage of his daughter, below the age of fourteen, to the young Maharaja of Kuch Bihar, who was not then sixteen years of age. [259] This event led to a public censure of Keshub Chandar Sen by his community and the secession of a section of the members, who formed the Sadharan or Universal Brahmo Samaj. The creed of this body consisted in the belief in an infinite Creator, the immortality of the soul, the duty and necessity of the spiritual worship of G.o.d, and disbelief in any infallible book or man as a means of salvation. [260]
7. Keshub Chandar"s relapse into mysticism.
From about this period, or a little before, Keshub Chandar Sen appears to have attempted to make a wider appeal to Indians by developing the emotional side of his religion. And he gradually relapsed from a pure unitarian theism into what was practically Hindu pantheism and the mysticism of the Yogis. At the same time he came to consider himself an inspired prophet, and proclaimed himself as such. The following instances of his extravagant conduct are given by Professor Oman. [261]
"In 1873 he brought forward the doctrine of Adesh or special inspiration, declaring emphatically that inspiration is not only possible, but a veritable fact in the lives of many devout souls in this age. The following years witnessed a marked development of that essentially Asiatic and perhaps more especially Indian form of religious feeling, which finds its natural satisfaction in solitary ecstatic contemplation. As a necessary consequence an order of devotees was established in 1876, divided into three main cla.s.ses, which in ascending gradation were designated Shabaks, Bhaktas and Yogis. The lowest cla.s.s, divided into two sections, is devoted to religious study and the practical performance of religious duties, including doing good to others. The aspiration of the Bhakta is ... "Inebriation in G.o.d. He is most pa.s.sionately fond of G.o.d and delights in loving Him and all that pertains to Him.... The very utterance of the divine name causes his heart to overflow and brings tears of joy to his eyes." As for the highest order of devotees, the Yogis, "They live in the spirit-world and readily commune with spiritual realities. They welcome whatever is a help to the entire subjugation of the soul, and are always employed in conquering selfishness, carnality and worldliness. They are happy in prayer and meditation and in the study of nature."
"The new dispensation having come into the world to harmonise conflicting creeds and regenerate mankind, must have its outward symbol, its triumphal banner floating proudly on the joyful air of highly-favoured India. A flag was therefore made and formally consecrated as "The Banner of the New Dispensation." This emblem of "Regenerated and saving theism" the new prophet himself formed with a yak"s tail and kissed with his own inspired lips. In orthodox Hindu fashion his missionaries--apostles of the new Dispensation--went round it with lights in their hands, while his less privileged followers respectfully touched the sacred pole and humbly bowed down to it. In a word, the banner was worshipped as Hindu idols are worshipped any day in India. Carried away by a spirit of innovation, anxious to keep himself prominently before the world, and realising no doubt that since churches and sects do not flourish on intellectual pabulum only, certain mystic rites and gorgeous ceremonials were necessary to the success of the new Dispensation, Keshub introduced into his Church various observances which attracted a good deal of attention and did not escape criticism. On one occasion he went with his disciples in procession, singing hymns, to a stagnant tank in Calcutta, and made believe that they were in Palestine and on the side of the Jordan. Standing near the tank Keshub said, "Beloved brethren, we have come into the land of the Jews, and we are seated on the bank of the Jordan. Let them that have eyes see. Verily, verily, here was the Lord Jesus baptised eighteen hundred years ago. Behold the holy waters wherein was the Son of G.o.d immersed." We learn also that Keshub and his disciples attempted to hold communication with saints and prophets of the olden time, upon whose works and teaching they had been pondering in retirement and solitude. On this subject the following notice appeared in the _Sunday Mirror_:
""It is proposed to promote communion with departed saints among the more advanced Brahmos. With a view to achieve this object successfully ancient prophets and saints will be taken one after another on special occasions and made the subject of close study, meditation and prayer. Particular places will also be a.s.signed to which the devotees will resort as pilgrims. There for hours together they will try to draw inspiration from particular saints. We believe a spiritual pilgrimage to Moses will be shortly undertaken. Only earnest devotees ought to join.""
8. Recent history of the Samaj.
Keshub Chandar Sen died in 1884, and the Brahmo Samaj seems subsequently to have returned more or less to its first position of pure theism coupled with Hindu social reform. His successor in the leadership of the sect was Babu P.C. Mazumdar, who visited America and created a favourable impression at the Parliament of Religions at Chicago. Under his guidance the Samaj seems to have gradually drifted towards American Unitarianism, and to have been supported in no slight degree by funds from the United States of America. [262] He died in 1905, and left no one of prominent character and attainments to succeed to the leadership. In 1911 the adherents of the different branches of the Samaj numbered at the census only 5500 persons.
9. Character of the movement.
The history of the Brahmo Samaj is of great interest, because it was the first attempt at the reform and purification of Hinduism made under the influence of Christianity, the long line of Vaishnavite reformers who strove to abrogate Hindu polytheism and the deadening restrictions of caste, having probably been inspired by the contemplation of Islam. The Samaj is further distinguished by the admirable toleration and broadness of view of its religious position, and by having had for its leaders three men of exceptional character and attainments, two of whom, and especially Keshub Chandar Sen, made a profound impression in England among all cla.s.ses of society. But the failure of the Samaj to attract any large number of converts from among the Hindus was only what might have been expected. For it requires its followers practically to cut themselves adrift from family and caste ties and offers nothing in return but an undefined theism, not calculated to excite any enthusiasm or strong feeling in ordinary minds. Its efforts at social reform have probably, however, been of substantial value in weakening the rigidity of Hindu rules on caste and marriage.
Dadupanthi Sect. [263]
_Dadupanthi Sect._--One of the sects founded by Vaishnava reformers of the school of Kabir; a few of its members are found in the western Districts of the Central Provinces. Dadu was a Pinjara or cotton-cleaner by caste. He was born at Ahmadabad in the sixteenth century, and died at Narayana in the Jaipur State shortly after A.D. 1600. He is said to have been the fifth successor in spiritual inspiration from Kabir, or the sixth from Ramanand. Dadu preached the unity of G.o.d and protested against the animistic abuses which had grown up in Hinduism. "To this day," writes Mr. Coldstream, "the Dadupanthis use the words Sat Ram, the True G.o.d, as a current phrase expressive of their creed. Dadu forbade the worship of idols, and did not build temples; now temples are built by his followers, who say they worship in them the Dadubani or Sacred Book." This is what has been done by other sects such as the Sikhs and Dhamis, whose founders eschewed the veneration of idols; but their uneducated followers could not dispense with some visible symbol for their adoration, and hence the sacred script has been enthroned in a temple. The worship of the Dadupanthis, Professor Wilson says, is addressed to Rama, but it is restricted to the j.a.pa or repet.i.tion of his name, and the Rama intended is the deity negatively described in the Vedanta theology. The chief place of worship of the sect is Narayana, where Dadu died. A small building on a hill marks the place of his disappearance, and his bed and the sacred books are kept there as objects of veneration.
Like other sects, the Dadupanthis are divided into celibate or priestly and lay or householder branches. But they have also a third offshoot, consisting in the Naga Gosains of Jaipur, nearly naked ascetics, who const.i.tuted a valuable part of the troops of Jaipur and other States. It is said that the Nagas always formed the van of the army of Jaipur. The sect have white caps with four corners and a flap hanging down at the back, which each follower has to make for himself. To prevent the destruction of animal life entailed by cremation, the tenets of the sect enjoin that corpses should be laid in the forests to be devoured by birds and beasts. This rule, however, is not observed, and their dead are burnt at early dawn.
Dhami, Prannathi Sect.
_Dhami, Prannathi Sect._--A small religious sect or order, having its headquarters in the Panna State of Bundelkhand. A few members of the sect are found in the Saugor and Damoh Districts of the Central Provinces. The name Dhami is simply a derivative from _dham_, a monastery, and in northern India they are called Prannathi after their founder. They are also known as Sathi Bhai, brothers in religion, or simply as Bhai or brothers. The sect takes its origin from one Prannath, a Rajput who lived in the latter part of Aurangzeb"s reign towards the end of the seventeenth century. He is said to have acquired great influence with Chatra Sal, Raja of Panna, by the discovery of a diamond mine there, and on this account Panna was made the home of the sect. Prannath was well acquainted with the sacred books of Islam, and, like other Hindu reformers, he attempted to propagate a faith which should combine the two religions. To this end he composed a work in Gujarati called the Kulzam Sarup, in which texts from the Koran and the Vedas are brought together and shown not to be incompatible. His creed also proclaimed the abolition of the worship of idols, and apparently of caste restrictions and the supremacy of Brahmans. As a test of a disciple"s a.s.sent to the real ident.i.ty of the Hindu and Muhammadan creeds, the ceremony of initiation consists in eating in the society of the followers of both religions; but the amalgamation appears to be carried no further, and members of the sect continue to follow generally their own religious practices. Theoretically they should worship no material objects except the Founder"s Book of Faith, which lies on a table covered with gold cloth in the princ.i.p.al temple at Panna. But in fact they adore the boy Krishna as he was at Mathura, and in some temples there are images of Radha and Krishna, while in others the decorations are so arranged as to look like an idol from a distance. All temples, however, contain a copy of the sacred book, round which a lighted lamp is waved in the morning and evening. The Dhamis now say also that their founder Prannath was an incarnation of Krishna, and they observe the Janam-Ashtami or Krishna"s birthday as their princ.i.p.al festival. They wear the Radha Vallabhi _tilak_ or sect-mark, consisting of two white lines drawn down the forehead from the roots of the hair, and curving to meet at the top of the nose, with a small red dot between them. On the cheeks and temples they make rosette-like marks by bunching up the five fingers, dipping them in a solution of sandalwood and then applying them to the face. [264]
They regard the Jumna as a sacred river and its water as holy, no doubt because Mathura is on its banks, but pay no reverence to the Ganges. Their priests observe celibacy, but do not practise asceticism, and all the Dhamis are strict vegetarians.
There is also a branch of the sect in Gujarat, where the founder is known as Meheraj Thakur. He appears to have been identical with Prannath, and inst.i.tuted a local headquarters at Surat. [265] It is related by Mr. Bhimbhai Kirparam that Meheraj Thakur was himself the disciple of one Deo Chand, a native of Amarkot in Sind. The latter was devoted to the study of the Bhagwat Puran, and came to Jamnagar in Kathiawar, where he founded a temple to Radha and Krishna. As there is a temple at Panna consecrated to Deo Chand as the Guru or preceptor of Prannath, and as the book of the faith is written in Gujarati, the above account would appear to be correct, and it follows that the sect originated in the worship of Krishna, and was refined by Prannath into a purer form of faith. A number of Cutchis in Surat are adherents of the sect, and usually visit the temple at Panna on the full-moon day of Kartik (October). Curiously enough the sect has also found a home in Nepal, having been preached there, it is said, by missionary Dhamis in the time of Raja Ram Bahadur Shah of Nepal, about 150 years ago. Its members there are known as Pranami or Parnami, a corruption of Prannathi and they often come to Panna to study the sacred book. It is reported that there are usually about forty Nepalis lodging in the premises of the great temple at Panna. [266]
Jain Religion