The most important of these are the Sunar or goldsmith; the Kasar or worker in bra.s.s and bell-metal; the Tamera or coppersmith; the Barhai or carpenter; and the Halwai and Bharbhunja or confectioner and grain-parcher. The Sansia or stone-mason of the Uriya country may perhaps also be included. These industries represent a higher degree of civilisation than the village trades, and the workers may probably have been formed into castes at a later period, when the practice of the handicrafts was no longer despised. The metal-working castes are now usually urban, and on the average their members are as well-to-do as the cultivators. The Sunars especially include a number of wealthy men, and their importance is increased by their a.s.sociation with the sacred metal, gold; in some localities they now claim to be Brahmans and refuse to take food from Brahmans. [62]
The more ambitious members abjure all flesh-food and liquor and wear the sacred thread. But in Bombay the Sunar was in former times one of the village menial castes, and here, before and during the time of the Peshwas, Sunars were not allowed to wear the sacred thread, and they were forbidden to hold their marriages in public, as it was considered unlucky to see a Sunar bridegroom. Sunar bridegrooms were not allowed to see the state umbrella or to ride in a palanquin, and had to be married at night and in secluded places, being subject to restrictions and annoyances from which even Mahars were free. Thus the goldsmith"s status appears to vary greatly according as his trade is a village or urban industry. Copper is also a sacred metal, and the Tameras rank next to the Sunars among the artisan castes, with the Kasars or bra.s.s-workers a little below them; both these castes sometimes wearing the sacred thread. These cla.s.ses of artisans generally live in towns. The Barhai or carpenter is sometimes a village menial, but most carpenters live in towns, the wooden implements of agriculture being made either by the blacksmith or by the cultivators themselves. Where the Barhai is a village menial he is practically on an equality with the Lohar or blacksmith; but the better-cla.s.s carpenters, who generally live in towns, rank higher. The Sansia or stone-mason of the Uriya country works, as a rule, only in stone, and in past times therefore his princ.i.p.al employment must have been to build temples. He could not thus be a village menial, and his status would be somewhat improved by the sanct.i.ty of his calling. The Halwai and Bharbhunja or confectioner and grain-parcher are castes of comparatively low origin, especially the latter; but they have to be given the status of ceremonial purity in order that all Hindus may be able to take sweets and parched grain from their hands. Their position resembles that of the barber and waterman, the pure village menials, which will be discussed later. In Bengal certain castes, such as the Tanti or weaver of fine muslin, the Teli or oil-presser, and the k.u.mhar or potter, rank with the ceremonially pure castes. Their callings have there become important urban industries. Thus the Tantis made the world-renowned fine muslins of Dacca; and the Jagannathia k.u.mhars of Orissa provide the earthen vessels used for the distribution of rice to all pilgrims at the temple of Jagannath. These castes and certain others have a much higher rank than that of the corresponding castes in northern and Central India, and the special reasons indicated seem to account for this. Generally the artisan castes ranking on the same or a higher level than the cultivators are urban and not rural. They were not placed in a position of inferiority to the cultivators by accepting contributions of grain and gifts from them, and this perhaps accounts for their higher position. One special caste may be noticed here, the Vidurs, who are the descendants of Brahman fathers by women of other castes. These, being of mixed origin, formerly had a very low rank, and worked as village accountants and patwaris. Owing to their connection with Brahmans, however, they are a well-educated caste, and since education has become the door to all grades of advancement in the public service, the Vidurs have taken advantage of it, and many of them are clerks of offices or hold higher posts under Government. Their social status has correspondingly improved; they dress and behave like Brahmans, and in some localities it is said that even Maratha Brahmans will take water to drink from Vidurs, though they will not take it from the cultivating castes. There are also several menial or serving castes from whom a Brahman can take water, forming the third cla.s.s of this group, but their real rank is much below that of the cultivators, and they will be treated in the next group.
26. Castes from whom a Brahman cannot take water; the village menials.
The third main division consists of those castes from whom a Brahman cannot take water, though they are not regarded as impure and are permitted to enter Hindu temples. The typical castes of this group appear to be the village artisans and menials and the village priests. The annexed list shows the princ.i.p.al of these.
_Village menials_.
Lohar--Blacksmith.
Barhai--Carpenter.
k.u.mhar--Potter.
Nai--Barber.
Dhimar--Waterman.
Kahar--Palanquin-bearer.
Bari--Leaf-plate maker.
Bargah--Household servant.
Dhobi--Washerman.
Darzi--Tailor.
Basor or Dhulia--Village musician.
Bhat and Mirasi--Bard and genealogist.
Halba--House-servant and farm-servant.
_Castes of village watchmen_.
Khangar.
Chadar.
Chauhan.
Dahait.
Panka.
_Village priests and mendicants_.
Joshi--Astrologer.
Garpagari--Hail-averter.
Gondhali--Musician.
Manbhao Jangam Basdewa Wandering priests and mendicants.
Satani Waghya
_Others_.
Mali--Gardener and maker of garlands.
Barai--Betel-vine grower and seller.
_Other village traders and artisans_.
Kalar--Liquor-vendor.
Teli--Oil-presser.
Hatwa Manihar Pedlar.
Banjara--Carrier.
Bahelia Pardhi Fowlers and hunters.
Bahna--Cotton-cleaner.
Chhipa--Calico-printer and dyer.
Chitrakathi--Painter and picture-maker.
Kachera--Gla.s.s bangle-maker.
Kadera--Fireworks-maker.
Nat--Acrobat.
Gadaria Dhangar Shepherds.
Kuramwar
Beldar Murha Diggers, navvies, and salt-refiners.
Nunia
The essential fact which formerly governed the status of this group of castes appears to be that they performed various services for the cultivators according to their different vocations, and were supported by contributions of grain made to them by the cultivators, and by presents given to them at seed-time and harvest. They were the clients of the cultivators and the latter were their patrons and supporters, and hence ranked above them. This condition of things survives only in the case of a few castes, but prior to the introduction of a metal currency must apparently have been the method of remuneration of all the village industries. The Lohar or blacksmith makes and mends the iron implements of agriculture, such as the ploughshare, axe, sickle and goad. For this he is paid in Saugor a yearly contribution of 20 lbs. of grain per plough of land held by each cultivator, together with a handful of grain at sowing-time and a sheaf at harvest from both the autumn and spring crops. In Wardha he gets 50 lbs. of grain per plough of four bullocks or 40 acres. For new implements he must either be paid separately or at least supplied with the iron and charcoal. In Districts where the Barhai or carpenter is a village servant he is paid the same as the Lohar and has practically an equal status. The village barber receives in Saugor 20 lbs. of grain annually from each adult male in the family, or 22 1/2 lbs. per plough of land besides the seasonal presents. In return for this he shaves each cultivator over the head and face about once a fortnight. The Dhobi or washerman gets half the annual contribution of the blacksmith and carpenter, with the same presents, and in return for this he washes the clothes of the family two or three times a month. When he brings the clothes home he also receives a meal or a wheaten cake, and well-to-do families give him their old clothes as a present. The Dhimar or waterman brings water to the house morning and evening, and fills the earthen water-pots placed on a wooden stand or earthen platform outside it. When the cultivators have marriages he performs the same duties for the whole wedding party, and receives a present of money and clothes according to the means of the family, and his food every day while the wedding is in progress. He supplies water for drinking to the reapers, receiving three sheaves a day as payment, and takes sweet potatoes and boiled plums to the field and sells them. The k.u.mhar or potter is not now paid regularly by dues from the cultivators like other village menials, as the ordinary system of sale has been found to be more convenient in his case. But he sometimes takes for use the soiled gra.s.s from the stalls of the cattle and gives pots free to the cultivator in exchange. On Akti day, at the beginning of the agricultural year, the village k.u.mhar in Saugor presents five pots with covers on them to each cultivator and is given 2 1/2 lbs. of grain. He presents the bride with seven new pots at a wedding, and these are filled with water and used in the ceremony, being considered to represent the seven seas. At a funeral he must supply thirteen vessels which are known as _ghats_, and must replace the household earthen vessels, which are rendered impure on the occurrence of a death in the house, and are all broken and thrown away. In the Punjab and Maratha country the k.u.mhar was formerly an ordinary village menial.
27. The village watchmen.
The office of village watchman is an important one, and is usually held by a member of the indigenous tribes. These formerly were the chief criminals, and the village watchman, in return for his pay, was expected to detect the crimes of his tribesmen and to make good any losses of property caused by them. The sections of the tribes who held this office have developed into special castes, as the Khangars, Chadars and Chauhans of Chhattisgarh. These last are probably of mixed descent from Rajputs and the higher castes of cultivators with the indigenous tribes. The Dahaits were a caste of gatekeepers and orderlies of native rulers who have now become village watchmen. The Pankas are a section of the impure Ganda caste who have embraced the doctrines of the Kabirpanthi sect and formed a separate caste. They are now usually employed as village watchmen and are not regarded as impure. Similarly those members of the Mahar servile caste who are village watchmen tend to marry among themselves and form a superior group to the others. The village watchman now receives a remuneration fixed by Government and is practically a rural policeman, but in former times he was a village menial and was maintained by the cultivators in the same manner as the others.
28. The village priests. The gardening castes.
The village priests are another cla.s.s of this group. The regular village priest and astrologer, the Joshi or Parsai, is a Brahman, but the occupation has developed a separate caste. The Joshi officiates at weddings in the village, selects auspicious names for children according to the constellations under which they were born, and points out the auspicious moment or _mahurat_ for weddings, name-giving and other ceremonies, and for the commencement of such agricultural operations as sowing, reaping, and threshing. He is also sometimes in charge of the village temple. He is supported by contributions of grain from the villagers and often has a plot of land rent-free from the proprietor. The social position of the Joshis is not very good, and, though Brahmans, they are considered to rank somewhat below the cultivating castes. The Gurao is another village priest, whose fortune has been quite different. The caste acted as priests of the temples of Siva and were also musicians and supplied leaf-plates. They were village menials of the Maratha villages. But owing to the sanct.i.ty of their calling, and the fact that they have become literate and taken service under Government, the Guraos now rank above the cultivators and are called Shaiva Brahmans. The Gondhalis are the village priests of Devi, the earth-G.o.ddess, who is also frequently the tutelary G.o.ddess of the village. They play the kettle-drum and perform dances in her honour, and were formerly cla.s.sed as one of the village menials of Maratha villages, though they now work for hire. The Garpagari, or hail-averter, is a regular village menial, his duty being to avert hail-storms from the crops, like the qalazof"ulax in ancient Greece. The Garpagaris will accept cooked food from Kunbis and celebrate their weddings with those of the Kunbis. The Jogis, Manbhaos, Satanis, and others, are wandering religious mendicants, who act as priests and spiritual preceptors to the lower cla.s.ses of Hindus.