The press, which is of the open-mould type, consists of a ram and die plates, the latter being set so as to make a tube which gradually tapers toward the delivery end of the machine. The briquettes have a cross-section similar to an ellipse with the ends slightly cut off; they are about 1 in. thick and average about 1 lb. in weight (Fig. 2, Plate XX). The press is operated by a direct connection with a steam engine of 150 h.p., the base of which is continuous with that of the press. The exhaust steam from the engine is used to heat the driver.
The plunger makes from 80 to 100 strokes per min., the pressure exerted ranging from 14,000 to 28,000 lb. per sq. in., the capacity of the machine being 1 briquette per stroke, or from 2 to 3 tons of completed briquettes per hour. It is expected that no binder will be needed for practically all the brown lignite briquetted by this machine, thus reducing the cost as compared with the briquetting of coals, which require from 5 to 7% of water-gas, pitch binder costing more than 50 cents per ton of manufactured briquettes.
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 18.
LONGITUDINAL-SECTION OF LIGNITE-BRIQUETTING PLANT]
[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 19.
CROSS-SECTION OF LIGNITE-BRIQUETTING PLANT]
_Peat Investigations._--Investigations into the distribution, production, origin, nature, and uses of peat are being conducted by Mr.
C. A. Davis, and include co-operative arrangements with State Geological Surveys and the Geologic Branch of the U.S. Geological Survey. These organizations conduct surveys which include the mapping of the peat deposits in the field, the determination of their extent and limitations, the sampling of peat from various depths, and the transmittal of samples to the Pittsburg laboratories for a.n.a.lysis and test.[28]
This work is co-ordinated in such a manner as to result in uniform methods of procedure in studying the peat deposits of the United States.
The samples of peat are subjected to microscopic examination, in order to determine their origin and age, and to chemical and physical tests at the laboratories in Pittsburg, so as to ascertain the chemical composition and calorific value, the resistance to compressive strains, the ash and moisture content, drying properties, resistance to abrasion, etc. Occasionally, large quant.i.ties of peat are disintegrated and machined, and portions, after drying for different periods, are subjected to combustion tests in steam boilers and to tests in the gas producer, to ascertain their efficiency as power producers.
_Results._--The full value of such investigations as have been described in the preceding pages cannot be realized for many years; but, even within the four years during which this work has been under way, certain investigations have led to important results, some of which may be briefly mentioned:
The chemical and calorific determinations of coals purchased for the use of the Government have resulted in the delivery of a better grade of fuel without corresponding increase in cost, and, consequently, in saving to the Government. Under this system, of purchasing its coal under specifications and testing, the Government is getting more nearly what it pays for and is paying for what it gets. These investigations, by suggesting changes in equipment and methods, are also indicating the practicability of the purchase of cheaper fuels, such as bituminous coal and the smaller sizes of pea, buckwheat, etc., instead of the more expensive sizes of anthracite, with a corresponding saving in cost. The Government"s fuel bill now aggregates about $10,000,000 yearly.
[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE XXII.
Fig. 1.--Dryer for Lignite Briquetting Press.
Fig. 2.--Lignite Briquetting Machine.]
The making and a.s.sembling of chemical a.n.a.lyses and calorific determinations (checked by other tests) of carefully selected samples of coals from nearly 1,000 different localities, in the different coal fields of the United States, with the additions, from time to time, of samples representing parts of coal fields or newly opened beds of coal in the same field, furnish invaluable sources of accurate information, not only for use of the Government, but also for the general public. Of the above-mentioned localities, 501 were in the public-land States and 427 in the Central, Eastern, and Southern States.
The chemical a.n.a.lyses of the coals found throughout the United States have been made with such uniformity of method, both as to collection of samples and a.n.a.lytical procedure, as to yield results strictly comparable for coals from all parts of the country, and furnish complete information, as a basis for future purchases and use by the Government and by the general public, of all types of American coals.
Other researches have resulted in the acquirement of valuable information regarding the distribution of temperature in the fuel bed of gas producers and furnaces, showing a range of from 400 to 1,300 cent., and have thus furnished data indicating specific difficulties to be overcome in gas-producer improvements for greater fuel efficiency.
The recent studies of the volatile matter in coal, and its relation to the operation of c.o.ke ovens and other forms of combustion, have demonstrated that as much as one-third of this matter is inert and non-combustible, a fact which may have a direct bearing on smoke prevention by explaining its cause and indicating means for its abatement.
Experiments in the storage of coal have proven that oxygen is absorbed during exposure to air, thereby causing, in some cases, a deterioration in heating value, and indicating that, for certain coals, in case they are to be stored a long time for naval and other purposes, storage under water is advisable.
The tests of different coals under steam boilers have shown the possibility of increasing the general efficiency of hand-fired steam boilers from 10 to 15% over ordinary results. If this saving could be made in the great number of hand-fired boilers now being operated in all parts of the United States, it would result in large saving in the fuel bill of the country. Experiments which have been made with residence-heating boilers justify the belief that it will be possible to perfect such types of boilers as may economically give a smokeless operation. The tests under steam boilers furnish specific information as to the most efficient method of utilizing each of a number of different types of coal in Government buildings and power plants in different parts of the country.
The tests in the gas producer have shown that many fuels of such low grade as to be practically valueless for steam-furnace purposes, including slack coal, bone coal, and lignite, may be economically converted into producer gas, and may thus generate sufficient power to render them of high commercial value.
Practically every shipment out of several hundred tested in the gas producers, including coals as high in ash content as 45%, and lignites and peats high in moisture, has been successfully converted into producer gas which has been used in operating gas engines. It has been estimated that on an average there was developed from each coal tested in the gas-producer plant two and one-half times the power developed when used in the ordinary steam-boiler plant, and that such relative efficiencies will probably hold good for the average plant of moderate power capacity, though this ratio may be greatly reduced in large steam plants of the most modern type. It was found that the low-grade lignites of North Dakota developed as much power, when converted into producer gas, as did the best West Virginia bituminous coals when utilized under the steam boiler; and, in this way, lignite beds underlying from 20,000,000 to 30,000,000 acres of public lands, supposed to have little or no commercial value, are shown to have a large value for power development.
The tests made with reference to the manufacture and combustion of briquetted coal have demonstrated conclusively that by this means many low-grade bituminous coals and lignites may have their commercial value increased to an extent which more than covers the increased cost of making; and these tests have also shown that bituminous coals of the higher grades may be burned in locomotives with greatly increased efficiency and capacity and with less smoke than the same coal not briquetted. These tests have shown that, with the same fuel consumption of briquettes as of raw coal, the same locomotive can very materially increase its hauling capacity and thus reduce the cost of transportation.
The investigations into smoke abatement have indicated clearly that each type of coal may be burned practically without smoke in some type of furnace or with some arrangement of mechanical stoker, draft, etc. The elimination of smoke means more complete combustion of the fuel, and consequently less waste and higher efficiency.
The investigations into the waste of coal in mining have shown the enormous extent of this waste, aggregating probably from 300,000,000 to 400,000,000 tons yearly, of which at least one-half might be saved. It is being demonstrated that the low-grade coals, high in sulphur and ash, now left underground, can be used economically in the gas producer for power and light, and, therefore, should be mined at the same time that the high-grade coal is being removed. Moreover, attention is now being called to the practicability of a further large reduction of waste through more efficient mining methods.
The washing tests have demonstrated the fact that many coals, too high in ash and sulphur for economic use under the steam boiler or for c.o.king, may be rendered of commercial value by proper treatment in the washery. The c.o.king tests have also demonstrated that, by proper methods of preparation for and manipulation in the beehive oven, many coals which were not supposed to be of economic value for c.o.king purposes, may be rendered so by prior washing and proper treatment. Of more than 100 coals tested during 1906 from the Mississippi Valley and the Eastern States, most of which coals were regarded as non-c.o.king, all except 6 were found, by careful manipulation, to make fairly good c.o.ke for foundry and other metallurgical purposes. Of 52 coals from the Rocky Mountain region, all but 3 produced good c.o.ke under proper treatment, though a number of these had been considered non-c.o.king coals.
Investigations into the relative efficiency of gasoline and denatured alcohol as power producers, undertaken in connection with work for the Navy Department, have demonstrated that with proper manipulation of the carburetters, igniters, degree of compression, etc., denatured alcohol has the same power-producing value, gallon for gallon, as gasoline. This is a most interesting development, in view of the fact that the heat value of a gallon of alcohol is only a little more than 0.6 that of a gallon of gasoline. To secure these results, compressions of from 150 to 180 lb. per sq. in. were used, these pressures involving an increase in weight of engine. Although the engine especially designed for alcohol will be heavier than a gasoline engine of the same size, it will have a sufficiently greater power capacity so that the weight per horse-power need not be greater.
Several hundred tons of peat have been tested to determine methods of drying, compressing into briquettes, and utilization for power production in the gas producer. In connection with these peat investigations, a reconnoissance survey has been made of the peat deposits of the Atlantic Coast. Samples have been obtained by boring to different depths in many widely distributed peat-bogs, and these samples have been a.n.a.lyzed and tested in order to determine their origin, nature, and fuel value.
The extent and number of tests from which these results have been derived will be appreciated from the fact that, in three years, nearly 15,000 tests were made, in each of which large quant.i.ties of fuel were consumed. These tests involved nearly 1,250,000 physical observations and 67,080 chemical determinations, made with a view to a.n.a.lyze the results of the tests and to indicate any necessary changes in the methods as they progressed. For c.o.king, cupola, and washing, 596 tests, of which nearly 300 involved the use of nearly 1,000 tons of coal, have been made at Denver. For briquetting, 312 tests have been made.
Briquettes have been used in combustion tests in which 250 tons of briquetted coal were consumed in battleship tests, 210 tons in torpedo-boat tests, 320 tons in locomotive tests on three railway systems, and 70 tons were consumed under stationary steam boilers. Of producer gas tests, 175 have been made, of which 7 were long-time runs of a week or more in duration, consuming in all 105 tons of coal. There have been 300 house-heating boiler tests and 575 steam-boiler tests; also, 83 railway-locomotive and 23 naval-vessel tests have been made on run-of-mine coal in comparison with briquetted coal; also, 125 tests have been made in connection with heat-transmission experiments, and 2,254 gasoline- and alcohol-engine tests. Nearly 10,000 samples of coal were taken for a.n.a.lysis, of which 3,000 were from public-land States.
Nearly 5,000 inspection samples, of coal purchased by the Government for its use, have been taken and tested.
The results of the tests made in the course of these investigations, as summarized, have been published in twelve separate Bulletins, three of which, Nos. 261, 290, and 332, set forth in detail the operations of the fuel-testing plant for 1904, 1905, and 1906. Professional Paper No. 48, in three volumes, describes in greater detail each stage of the operations for 1904 and 1905.
Separate Bulletins, descriptive of the methods and results of the work in detail, have been published, as follows: No. 323, Experimental work conducted in the chemical laboratory; No. 325, A study of four hundred steaming tests; No. 334, Burning of coal without smoke in boiler plants; No. 336, Washing and c.o.king tests of coal, and cupola tests of c.o.ke; No.
339, Purchase of coal under specifications on basis of heating value; No. 343, Binders for coal briquettes; No. 362, Mine sampling and chemical a.n.a.lyses of coals in 1907; No. 363, Comparative tests of run-of-mine and briquetted coal on locomotives, including torpedo-boat tests, and some foreign specifications for briquetted fuel; No. 366, Tests of coal and briquettes as fuel for house-heating boilers; No. 367, Significance of drafts in steam-boiler practice; No. 368, c.o.king and washing tests of coal at Denver; No. 373, Smokeless combustion of coal in boiler plants, with a chapter on central heating plants; No. 378, Results of purchasing coal under Government specifications; No. 382, The effect of oxygen in coal; and, No. 385, Briquetting tests at Norfolk, Va.
DISCUSSION
KENNETH ALLEN, M. Am. Soc. C. E.--The speaker would like to know whether anything has been done in the United States toward utilizing marsh mud for fuel.
In an address by Mr. Edward Atkinson, before the New England Water Works a.s.sociation, in 1904, on the subject of "Bog Fuel," he referred to its extensive use in Sweden and elsewhere, and intimated that there was a wide field for its use in America.
The percentage of combustible material in the mud of ordinary marsh lands is very considerable, and there are enormous deposits readily available; but it is hardly probable that its calorific value is sufficiently high to render its general use at this time profitable.
As an example of the amount of organic matter which may remain stored in these muds for many years, the speaker would mention a sample taken from the bottom of a trench, which he had a.n.a.lyzed a few years ago. Although taken from a depth of about 15 ft., much of the vegetable fiber remained intact. The material proved to be 70% volatile.
Possibly before the existing available coal deposits are exhausted, the exploitation of meadow muds for fuel may become profitable.
HENRY KREISINGER, Esq.[29] (by letter).--Mr. Wilson gives a brief description of a long furnace and an outline of the research work which is being done in it. It may be well to discuss somewhat more fully the proposed investigations and point out the practical value of the findings to which they may lead.
In general, the object is to study the process of combustion of coal.
When soft coal is burned in any furnace, part of the combustible is driven off shortly after charging, and has to be burned in the s.p.a.ce between the fuel bed and the exit of the gases, which is called the combustion s.p.a.ce. There is enough evidence to show that, with a constant air supply, the completeness of the combustion of the volatile combustible depends on the length of time the latter stays within the combustion s.p.a.ce; but, with a constant rate of charging the coal, this length of time depends directly on the extent of the combustion s.p.a.ce.
Thus, if the volume of the volatile combustible evolved per second and the admixed air is 40 cu. ft., and the extent of the combustion s.p.a.ce is 80 cu. ft., the average time the gas will stay within the latter is 2 sec.; if the combustion s.p.a.ce is 20 cu. ft., the average time the mixture can stay in this s.p.a.ce is only sec., and its combustion will be less complete than in the first case. Thus it is seen that the extent of the combustion s.p.a.ce of a furnace is an important factor in the economic combustion of volatile coals. The specific object of the investigations, thus far planned, is to determine the extent of the combustion s.p.a.ce required to attain practically complete combustion when a given quant.i.ty of a given coal is burned under definite conditions.
With this object in view, the furnace has been provided with a combustion s.p.a.ce large enough for the highest volatile coals and for the highest customary rate of combustion. To ill.u.s.trate the application of the data which will be obtained by these experiments, the following queries are given:
Suppose it is required to design a furnace which will burn coal from a certain Illinois mine at the rate of 1,000 lb. per hour, with a resulting temperature of not less than 2,800 Fahr. How large a combustion s.p.a.ce is required to burn, with practical completeness, the volatile combustible? What completeness of combustion can be attained, if the combustion s.p.a.ce is only three-fourths of the required extent? In the present state of the knowledge of the process of combustion of coal, these queries cannot be answered definitely. In the literature on combustion one may find statements that the gases must be completely burned before leaving the furnace or before they strike the cooling surfaces of the boiler; but there is no definite information available as to how long the gases must be kept in the furnace or how large the combustion s.p.a.ce must be in order to obtain practically complete combustion. It is strange that so little is known of such an old art as the combustion of coal.
The research work under consideration is fundamentally a problem in physical chemistry, and, for that reason, has been a.s.signed to a committee consisting of the writer as Engineer, Dr. J. C. W. Frazer, Chemist, and Dr. J. K. Clement, Physicist. The outcome of the investigation may prove of extreme interest to mechanical and fuel engineers, and to all who have anything to do with the burning of coal or the construction of furnaces. In the experiments thus far planned the following factors will be considered:
_Effect of the Nature of Coal on the Extent of Combustion s.p.a.ce Required._--The steaming coals mined in different localities evolve different volumes of volatile combustible, even when burned at the same rate. The coal which a.n.a.lyzes 45% of volatile matter evolves a much greater volume of gases and tar vapors than that a.n.a.lyzing only 15 per cent. These evolved gases and tar vapors must be burned in the s.p.a.ce.
Consequently, a furnace burning high volatile coal must have a much larger combustion s.p.a.ce than that burning coal low in volatile combustible.
There is enough evidence to show that the extent of combustion s.p.a.ce required to burn the volatile combustible depends, not only on the volume of the combustible mixture, but also on the chemical composition of the volatile combustible. Thus the volatile combustible of low volatile coal, when mixed with an equal volume of air, may require 1 sec. in the combustion s.p.a.ce to burn practically to completeness, while it may require 2 sec. to burn the same volume of the volatile combustible of high volatile coal with the same completeness; so that the extent of the combustion s.p.a.ce required to burn various kinds of coal may not be directly proportional to the volatile matter of the coal.