While Rama is but a partial manifestation of divinity Krishna is a full manifestation; yet what a manifestation! He is represented as full of naughty tricks in his youth, although exercising the highest powers of deity; and, when he grows up, his conduct is grossly immoral and disgusting. It is most startling to think that this being is by grave writers--like the authors of the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana--made the highest of the G.o.ds, or, indeed, the only real G.o.d.
Stranger still, if possible, is the probability that the early life of Krishna--in part, at least--is a dreadful travesty of the early life of Christ, as given in the apocryphal gospels, especially the Gospel of the Infancy. The falling off in the apocryphal gospels, when compared with the canonical, is truly sad; but the falling off even from the apocryphal ones, in the Hindu books, is altogether sickening.[27]
A very striking characteristic of modern Hinduism is what is termed _bhakti_, or devotion. There are three great ways of attaining to salvation: _karma marga_, or the way of ceremonial works; _jnana marga_, or the way of knowledge, and _bhakti marga_, or the way of devotion.
[Sidenote: Doctrine of _bhakti_ introduced.
Influence of the system.
Mixed with Buddhist elements.
Exaltation of the _guru_.]
The notion of trust in the G.o.ds was familiar to the mind of India from Vedic days, but the deity was indistinct and unsympathetic, and there could hardly be love and attachment to him. But there now arose the doctrine of _bhakti_ (devotion), which resolved religion into emotion.
It came into the Hindu system rather abruptly; and many learned men have traced its origin to the influence of Christianity. This is quite possible; but perhaps the fact is hardly proved. Contact with Christianity, however, probably accelerated a process which had previously begun. At all events, the system of _bhakti_ has had, and still has, great sway in India, particularly in Bengal, among the followers of Chaitanya, and the large body of people in western India who style themselves _Vaishnavas_ or _Bhaktas_ (devotees). The popular poetry of Maharashtra, as exemplified in such poets as Tukarama, is an impa.s.sioned inculcation of devotion to Vithoba of Pandharpur, who is a manifestation of Krishna. Into the _bhakti_ system of western India Buddhist elements have entered; and the school of devotees is often denominated Bauddha-Vaishnava. Along with extravagant idolatry it inculcates generally, at least in the Maratha country, a pure morality; and the latter it apparently owes to Buddhism. Yet there are many sad lapses from purity. Almost of necessity the worship of Krishna led to corruption. The hymns became erotic; and movements hopeful at their commencement--like that of Chaitanya of Bengal, in the sixteenth century--soon grievously fell off in character. The attempt to make religion consist of emotion without thought, of _bhakti_ without _jnana_, had disastrous issues. Coincident with the development of _bhakti_ was the exaltation of the _guru_, or religious teacher, which soon amounted to deification--a change traceable from about the twelfth century A.D.
[Sidenote: Explanations of Krishna"s evil deeds.]
When pressed on the subject of Krishna"s evil deeds many are anxious to explain them as allegorical representations of the union between the divinity and true worshipers; but some interpret them in the most literal way possible. This is done especially by the followers of Vallabha Acharya.[28] These men attained a most unenviable notoriety about twenty years ago, when a case was tried in the Supreme Court of Bombay, which revealed the practice of the most shameful licentiousness by the religious teachers and their female followers, and this as a part of worship! The disgust excited was so great and general that it was believed the influence of the sect was at an end; but this hope unhappily has not been realized.
[Sidenote: Reforms attempted.
Kabir.
Nanak.
Failure of all reforms.]
Reformers have arisen from time to time in India; men who saw the deplorable corruption of religion, and strove to restore it to what they considered purity. Next to Buddha we may mention Kabir, to whom are ascribed many verses still popular. Probably the doctrine of the unity of G.o.d, as maintained by the Mohammedans, had impressed him. He opposed idolatry, caste, and Brahmanical a.s.sumption. Yet his monotheism was a kind of pantheism. His date may be the beginning of the fifteenth century. Nanak followed and founded the religion of the Sikhs. His sacred book, the _Granth_, is mainly pantheistic; it dwells earnestly on devotion, especially devotion to the _guru_. The Sikhs now seem slowly relapsing into idolatry. In truth, the history of all attempts at reformation in India has been most discouraging. Sect after sect has successively risen to some elevation above the prevalent idolatry; and then gradually, as by some irresistible gravitation, it has sunk back into the _mare magnum_ of Hinduism. If we regard experience, purification from within is hopeless; the struggle for it is only a repet.i.tion of the toil of Sisyphus, and always with the same sad issue.
Deliverance must come from without--from the Gospel of Jesus Christ.
[Sidenote: Influence of the Tantras.
Worship of the Sakti.]
We mentioned the Tantras as exerting great influence in later days.[29]
In these the worship of Siva, and, still more, that of his wife, is predominant. The deity is now supposed to possess a double nature--one quiescent, one active; the latter being regarded as the _Sakti_ or energy of the G.o.d, otherwise called his wife. The origin of the system is not fully explained; nor is the date of its rise ascertained. The worship a.s.sumes wild, extravagant forms, generally obscene, sometimes b.l.o.o.d.y. It is divided into two schools--that of the right hand and that of the left. The former runs into mysticism and magic in complicated observances, and the latter into the most appalling licentiousness. The worship of the Sakti, or female principle, has become a most elaborate system. The beings adored are "the most outrageous divinities which man has ever conceived."[30] Sorcery began early in India; but it is in connection with this system that it attains to full development. Human sacrifices are a normal part of the worship when fully performed. We cannot go farther into detail. It is profoundly saddening to think that such abominations are committed; it is still more saddening to think that they are performed as a part of divine worship. Conscience, however, is so far alive that these detestable rites are practiced only in secret, and few, if any, are willing to confess that they have been initiated as worshipers.
[Sidenote: Modern ritual.]
We have not yet said much about the ritual of modern days. It is exceedingly complicated. In the case of the G.o.d Siva the rites are as follows, when performed by a priest in the temple:
[Sidenote: Worship of Siva.]
The Brahman first bathes, then enters the temple and bows to the G.o.d. He anoints the image with clarified b.u.t.ter or boiled oil; pours pure water over it; and then wipes it dry. He grinds some white powder, mixing it with water; dips the ends of his three forefingers in it and draws them across the image. He sits down; meditates; places rice and _durwa_ gra.s.s on the image--places a flower on his own head, and then on the top of the image; then another flower on the image, and another, and another--accompanying each act with the recitation of sacred spells; places white powder, flowers, bilva-leaves, incense, meat-offerings, rice, plantains, and a lamp before the image; repeats the name of Siva, with praises, then prostrates himself before the image. In the evening he returns, washes his feet, prostrates himself before the door, opens the door, places a lamp within, offers milk, sweet-meats, and fruits to the image, prostrates himself before it, locks the door, and departs.
Very similar is the worship paid to Vishnu:
[Sidenote: Worship of Vishnu.]
The priest bathes, and then awakes the sleeping G.o.d by blowing a sh.e.l.l and ringing a bell. More abundant offerings are made than to Siva. About noon, fruits, roots, soaked peas, sweet-meats, etc., are presented. Then, later, boiled rice, fried herbs, and spices; but no flesh, fish, nor fowl. After dinner, betel-nut. The G.o.d is then left to sleep, and the temple is shut up for some hours.
Toward evening curds, b.u.t.ter, sweet-meats, fruits, are presented.
At sunset a lamp is brought, and fresh offerings made. Lights are waved before the image; a small bell is rung; water is presented for washing the mouth, face, and feet, with a towel to dry them. In a few minutes the offerings and the lamp are removed; and the G.o.d is left to sleep in the dark.
The prescribed worship is not always fully performed. Still, sixteen things are essential, of which the following are the most important:
"Preparing a seat for the G.o.d; invoking his presence; bathing the image; clothing it; putting the string round it; offering perfumes; flowers; incense; lamps; offerings of fruits and prepared eatables; betel-nut; prayers; circ.u.mambulation. An ordinary worshiper presents some of the offerings, mutters a short prayer or two, when circ.u.mambulating the image, the rest being done by the priest."[31]
We give one additional specimen of the ritual:
"As an atonement for unwarily eating or drinking what is forbidden eight hundred repet.i.tions of the Gayatri prayer should be preceded by three suppressions of the breath, water being touched during the recital of the following text: "The bull roars; he has four horns, three feet, two heads, seven hands, and is bound by a three-fold cord; he is the mighty, resplendent being, and pervades mortal men.""[32]
The bull is understood to be justice personified. All Brahmanical ceremonies exhibit, we may say, ritualism and symbolism run mad.
[Sidenote: Caste.]
The most prominent and characteristic inst.i.tution of Hinduism is caste.
The power of caste is as irrational as it is unbounded; and it works almost unmixed evil. The touch--even the shadow--of a low caste man pollutes. The scriptural precept, "Honor all men," appears to a true Hindu infinitely absurd. He honors and worships a cow; but he shrinks with horror from the touch of a Mhar or Mang. Even Brahmans, if they come from different provinces, will not eat together. Thus Hinduism separates man from man; it goes on dividing and still dividing; and new fences to guard imaginary purity are continually added.
[Sidenote: Treatment of women.
Widows.]
The whole treatment of women has gradually become most tyrannical and unjust. In very ancient days they were held in considerable respect; but, for ages past, the idea of woman has been steadily sinking lower and lower, and her rights have been more and more a.s.sailed. The burning of widows has been prohibited by enactment; but the awful rite would in many places be restored were it not for the strong hand of the British government. The practice of marrying women in childhood is still generally--all but universally--prevalent; and when, owing to the zeal of reformers, a case of widow-marriage occurs, its rarity makes it be hailed as a signal triumph. Mult.i.tudes of the so-called widows were never really wives, their husbands (so-called) having died in childhood.
Widows are subjected to treatment which they deem worse than death; and yet their number, it is calculated, amounts to about twenty-one millions! More cruel and demoralizing customs than exist in India in regard to women can hardly be found among the lowest barbarians. We are glad to escape from dwelling on points so exceedingly painful.
IV.
CONTRAST WITH CHRISTIANITY.
The immense difference between the Hindu and Christian religions has doubtless already frequently suggested itself to the reader. It will not be necessary, therefore, to dwell on this topic at very great length.
The contrast forces itself upon us at every point.
[Sidenote: The Aryas and Israelites--their probable future, about 1500 B.C.
Contrast of their after-history.]
When, about fifteen centuries B.C., the Aryas were victoriously occupying the Panjab, and the Israelites were escaping from the "iron furnace" of Egypt, if one had been asked which of the two races would probably rise to the highest conception of the divine, and contribute most largely to the well-being of mankind, the answer, quite possibly, might have been, the Aryas. Egypt, with its brutish idolatries, had corrupted the faith of the Israelites, and slavery had crushed all manliness out of them. Yet how wonderful has been their after-history!
Among ancient religions that of the Old Testament stands absolutely unique, and in the fullness of time it blossomed into Christianity. How is the marvel to be explained? We cannot account for it except by ascribing it to a divine election of the Israelites and a providential training intended to fit them to become the teachers of the world.
"Salvation is of the Jews."
The contrast between the teachings of the Bible and those of the Hindu books is simply infinite.
[Sidenote: Hindu theology compared with Christian.]
The conception of a purely immaterial Being, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable, which is that of the Bible regarding G.o.d, is entirely foreign to the Hindu books. Their doctrine is various, but, in every case, erroneous. It is absolute pantheism, or polytheism, or an inconsistent blending of polytheism and pantheism, or atheism.
Equally striking is the contrast between Christianity and Hinduism as to the attributes of G.o.d. According to the former, he is omnipresent; omnipotent; possessed of every excellence--holiness, justice, goodness, truth. According to the chief Hindu philosophy, the Supreme is devoid of attributes--devoid of consciousness. According to the popular conception, when the Supreme becomes conscious he is developed into three G.o.ds, who possess respectively the qualities of truth, pa.s.sion, and darkness.
[Sidenote: Conception of G.o.d.]
"G.o.d is a Spirit." "G.o.d is light." "G.o.d is love." These sublime declarations have no counterparts in Hindustan.
He is "the Father of spirits," according to the Bible. According to Hinduism, the individual spirit is a portion of the divine. Even the common people firmly believe this.
Every thing is referred by Hinduism to G.o.d as its immediate cause. A Christian is continually shocked by the Hindus ascribing all sin to G.o.d as its source.
[Sidenote: The object of worship.]
The adoration of G.o.d as a Being possessed of every glorious excellence is earnestly commanded in the Bible. "Thou shalt worship the Lord thy G.o.d; and him only shalt thou serve." In India the Supreme is never worshiped; but any one of the mult.i.tudinous G.o.ds may be so; and, in fact, every thing can be worshiped _except_ G.o.d. A maxim in the mouth of every Hindu is the following: "Where there is faith, there is G.o.d."
Believe the stone a G.o.d and it is so.
[Sidenote: The sense of sin.]
Every sin being traced to G.o.d as its ultimate source, the sense of personal guilt is very slight among Hindus. Where it exists it is generally connected with ceremonial defilement or the breach of some one of the innumerable and meaningless rites of the religion. How unlike in all this is the Gospel! The Bible dwells with all possible earnestness on the evil of sin, not of ceremonial but moral defilement--the transgression of the divine law, the eternal law of right.
[Sidenote: Atonement.]
How important a place in the Christian system is held by atonement, the great atonement made by Christ, it is unnecessary to say. Nor need we enlarge on the extraordinary power it exercises over the human heart, at once filling it with contrition, hatred of sin, and overflowing joy. We turn to Hinduism. Alas! we find that the earnest questionings and higher views of the ancient thinkers have in a great degree been ignored in later times. Sacrifice in its original form has pa.s.sed away. Atonement is often spoken of; but it is only some paltry device or other, such as eating the five products of the cow, going on pilgrimage to some sacred shrine, paying money to the priests, or, it may be, some form of bodily penance. Such expedients leave no impression on the heart as to the true nature and essential evil of sin.