Of course, I was cognizant at all times that spin of one sort or another could be involved in the help I was receiving. Without dictating to a defector what he should say, for example, the South Korean authorities could try to determine the most opportune time to present him to the public. After all, while finding the truth was my goal (and again, it"s up to the reader to judge the extent to which I found it or failed to find it), polishing the image of South Korea and promoting the policies of its government const.i.tuted the main work of KOIS. What I can point out, though, is that it was a time when democratically elected governments sought especially to show that the bad old days, when many official fabrications and manipulations of information had been justified on grounds of anti-communism, were past. Any spin that furthered that goal of theirs, I calculated, might also further mine.
Eventually, I heard that the pendulum had swung so far that the Kim Dae-jung administration had taken to discouraging defectors from giving interviews for fear they would antagonize Pyongyang and cloud the "sunshine" policy. The Roh Moo-hyun administration reportedly continued such a policy. I had pretty much completed the defector-interviewing phase of my research by then, fortunately.
There were, in fact, a couple of high-level defectors whom I was not able to interview because they were under wraps for whatever reasons at the times I tried to meet them. One was Hw.a.n.g Jang-yop. (I had met and spoken with Hw.a.n.g briefly at a Tokyo reception just days before before his 1997 defection. He had not, alas, revealed his defection plans to me and the other two foreign correspondents questioning him that evening. But in hindsight I thought he had seemed to be under some strain-perhaps on account of the swarm of minders surrounding him, who quickly spirited him away before he could say much of anything to us. That line of thinking occurred to me after it came out that Hw.a.n.g had hoped to defect while in j.a.pan, but had not been able to shake the people watching him-and so had waited and made his escape after arriving in Beijing, en route home to Pyongyang.) Following his defection, fortunately, Hw.a.n.g wrote prolifically for publication. his 1997 defection. He had not, alas, revealed his defection plans to me and the other two foreign correspondents questioning him that evening. But in hindsight I thought he had seemed to be under some strain-perhaps on account of the swarm of minders surrounding him, who quickly spirited him away before he could say much of anything to us. That line of thinking occurred to me after it came out that Hw.a.n.g had hoped to defect while in j.a.pan, but had not been able to shake the people watching him-and so had waited and made his escape after arriving in Beijing, en route home to Pyongyang.) Following his defection, fortunately, Hw.a.n.g wrote prolifically for publication.
One further note: I learned that the practice of KOIS, when arranging for foreign reporters to meet defectors, was to provide each interviewee a per diem "transportation fee" of 100,000 won, won, the equivalent of something under $100. Although such modest compensation of interviewees for their trouble was accepted as normal in the East Asian context, to put money and interviewing together always raises a caution flag in American journalistic ethics. I was not in a position to change the system, but I did undertake payment of the fees out of my pocket (in envelopes that I personally handed to the defectors when the interviews were over) in order to avoid having the South Korean government subsidize my research. the equivalent of something under $100. Although such modest compensation of interviewees for their trouble was accepted as normal in the East Asian context, to put money and interviewing together always raises a caution flag in American journalistic ethics. I was not in a position to change the system, but I did undertake payment of the fees out of my pocket (in envelopes that I personally handed to the defectors when the interviews were over) in order to avoid having the South Korean government subsidize my research.
Speaking of subsidies, the financing of my project hit a dry spell after my Fulbright grant expired in 1993. I hereby offer thanks to my lucky stars, and to the G.o.ds of Wall Street, for the fact that timely bets-first on Southeast Asian and later on Russian stock funds-produced returns sufficient to permit continued work on the book until I returned to full-time newspaper work for Asia Times Asia Times in 1995, and to resume work on it after the newspaper ceased print publication in 1997. in 1995, and to resume work on it after the newspaper ceased print publication in 1997.
I am grateful for the opportunity to work on the book at Dartmouth College in 2002 as "distinguished journalist in residence" at the John Sloan d.i.c.key Center for International Understanding. Thanks to Prof. Michael Mastanduno of Dartmouth, Prof. Joseph Ma.s.sey of the Tuck School of Business and Margot E. de l"Etoile, who keeps the center humming, for making possible a very productive period. Special thanks go to Dartmouth professor David C. Kang, an old colleague from my Seoul Fulbright days, who put me forward for the d.i.c.key fellowship. Dave also read and commented on huge chunks of the ma.n.u.script and was otherwise endlessly helpful and encouraging.
At Ohio University"s E. W. Scripps School of Journalism in 20022003, and since then at Louisiana State University"s Manship School of Ma.s.s Communication, I have spent practically every waking, non-teaching moment working on the book. I acknowledge with thanks the financial support of the Scripps-Howard Foundation and (through the LSU Foundation) of the Manship family and the State of Louisiana"s Board of Regents. I am grateful also for the help and patience of my colleagues and students at both universities.
Among friends offering valuable encouragement when I decided to try my hand at producing a book, William Chapman, former Washington Post Washington Post Tokyo bureau chief, was the author of a volume about j.a.pan that I greatly admired. Daunted by the prospect of undertaking such a huge effort, I asked Bill how I might come up with an overall theme. (I had not yet learned Kim Jong-il"s term, "seed.") "Just report," he told me, "and then go back and try to figure out what it all adds up to." In our journalistic trade, as Bill did not need to remind me, the worst thing we could say about another reporter was that he or she never let the facts get in the way of a good story. Tokyo bureau chief, was the author of a volume about j.a.pan that I greatly admired. Daunted by the prospect of undertaking such a huge effort, I asked Bill how I might come up with an overall theme. (I had not yet learned Kim Jong-il"s term, "seed.") "Just report," he told me, "and then go back and try to figure out what it all adds up to." In our journalistic trade, as Bill did not need to remind me, the worst thing we could say about another reporter was that he or she never let the facts get in the way of a good story.
I followed Bill Chapman"s advice, gratefully, and he helped again when he introduced me to the New York literary agency Scovil Chichak Galen. Jack Scovil made Herculean efforts to interest publishers in my partial ma.n.u.script. When one after another told him that Americans weren"t very interested in reading about Korea, he refused to give up. He told me later that he had lost sleep worrying that Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader Under the Loving Care of the Fatherly Leader might go unpublished. Jack finally found the perfect publisher, and a highly perceptive editor, in Tom Dunne. I am deeply grateful to both men for making it all happen. My appreciation goes also to Sean Desmond, my editor at Thomas Dunne Books, who has done a bang-up job of shepherding the book into print, and to the impressively meticulous production editor, Mark Steven Long. might go unpublished. Jack finally found the perfect publisher, and a highly perceptive editor, in Tom Dunne. I am deeply grateful to both men for making it all happen. My appreciation goes also to Sean Desmond, my editor at Thomas Dunne Books, who has done a bang-up job of shepherding the book into print, and to the impressively meticulous production editor, Mark Steven Long.
Thanks to Ray Downs, Richard Read and Mike Tharp for providing helpful comments on the ma.n.u.script.
At the Seoul home of Jack and Meehee Burton, the sofa bed always awaited me. I am deeply grateful for their friendship and warm hospitality. In Seoul I also received valuable help from, among others, Prof. Ahn Byung-joon, Prof. Ahn Chung-si, Michael Breen, Dr. Cha Yong-koo, Prof. Chay Pyung-gil, Chi Jung-nam, Cho Gab-je, R. S. C. Gimenez, Jean-Jacques Grauhar, Kenneth Kaliher, Dr. Kil Jeong-woo, Kim Chang-soon, Kim Choong-nam, Kim Key-man, Dr. Kim Kyung-won, Kim Yong-min, Amb. Juergen Kleiner, Catherine Lee, Lee Dong-bok, Dr. Lee Hong-koo, Shim Jae-hoon, Christopher Torchia, Kate Webb, Won Yong-chol, Dr. Yang Sung-chul, Yoo Kun-il and Alexander Z. Zhebin.
United States officials and former officials who helped out included De-saix Anderson, Amb. Stephen Bosworth, Steve Bradner, David E. Brown, Hugh Burleson, Richard Christenson, Jim Coles III, Bruce Donahue, Edward Dong, Rust Deming, Amb. Donald Gregg, Morton Holbrook, Amb. Thomas Hubbard, Amb. Charles Kartman, Jim Keith, William H. Maurer Jr., Aloysius M. O"Neill III, David Pierce, James Pierce, Larry Robinson, Danny Russel, Steve Rounds, Jack Sears and David Straub.
Old friend Park Shin-il called upon members of his vast net-work of colleagues to lend a.s.sistance. South Korean officials and former officials who were particularly helpful included Byun Chang-yull, Hw.a.n.g Hyon-tak, Kim Myong-sik, Kim Ryu, Park Jung-ho, Park Sung-soo, Shin On, Sohn Woo-hyun, Suh Sang-myun, Yang Yun-kil, Yi Chan-yong and Yoo Il-han.
In j.a.pan I had help from, among others, Takao Goto, Richard C. Hanson, Lee Hyon-suk, Prof. Lee Young-hwa, Yoshiko Matsus.h.i.ta, Katsuko Saito, Katsumi Sato, Kim Myong-chol, Larry Kelly, Mark Schreiber and Geoffrey Tudor.
Elsewhere I had valuable help from Grayson Bryan, former congressman George "Buddy" Darden, Dr. Young S. Kim, Stephen W Linton, Leonid Petrov and John Einer Sandvand. Thanks to all of those.
Going way back, I remember with grat.i.tude William Carter, especially and the other gifted public school teachers in Marietta, Georgia, who taught me to write, including Iris Collins, Imogene Keck, Christine Hutcheson and Clara Nolen. A pa.s.sion for history came over me after I arrived at Princeton, where I studied under such great professors as David Herbert Donald, Eric F. Goldman, James M. McPherson and-my initial guide to Asia- Frederick W. Mote. (Two decades later, thanks to the Professional Journalism Fellowships-now John S. Knight Fellowships-program, I had the opportunity to study with outstanding Asia experts on the Stanford faculty including Masahiko Aoki, Peter Duus, Harry Harding, John W. Lewis, Melinda Takeuchi and Robert Ward.) Finally, Angsana Saengsaw.a.n.g rates special mention for her unflagging support and for putting up with my many absences from our home in Bangkok. And to my son Alexander K. T. Martin go my congratulations that he has turned out to be such a fine young man, even though the book soaked up too much of the parenting that should have gone to him during his boyhood.
I"m sure I have overlooked someone I should be singling out for public thanks. I apologize for that. Of course neither the people named nor the many other benefactors who go unnamed-the latter group including North Korean and Chongryon officials to whom I am grateful for help with information or arrangements-are not to blame for shortcomings in the book. For those I am totally responsible.
Bangkok, July 8, 2004
NOTES.
Preface.
1. Quotations are from H. G. Wells, Quotations are from H. G. Wells, The Time Machine: An Invention, The Time Machine: An Invention, edited by Nicholas Rudd.i.c.k (Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Literary Texts, 2001). edited by Nicholas Rudd.i.c.k (Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Literary Texts, 2001).
1. To the City of the G.o.d-King.
1 While many visitors to Pyongyang have suspected as I did that actors and actresses were performing as ordinary citizens, it would have been hard to prove. But a diligent search undertaken by a Seoul-based newsletter may have unearthed the smoking gun. While many visitors to Pyongyang have suspected as I did that actors and actresses were performing as ordinary citizens, it would have been hard to prove. But a diligent search undertaken by a Seoul-based newsletter may have unearthed the smoking gun. Korea Countdown Korea Countdown (published by Breen & Gustaveson Consulting, Ltd.) stated in its August 1994 issue that its editors had found two places in Kim Il-sung"s own writings where Kim complained, in so many words, that the "actresses" who lined Pyongyang streets to greet foreign VIPs were not giving a good enough impression. Alas, the newsletter did not cite the specific pa.s.sages. (published by Breen & Gustaveson Consulting, Ltd.) stated in its August 1994 issue that its editors had found two places in Kim Il-sung"s own writings where Kim complained, in so many words, that the "actresses" who lined Pyongyang streets to greet foreign VIPs were not giving a good enough impression. Alas, the newsletter did not cite the specific pa.s.sages.
Evidently the North Koreans learned from the Soviet Union the idea of using a subway to impress visitors. American Gen. .Mark Clark in 1954 related "the old tale of the American engineers who visited .Moscow" and were shown the Moscow Metro: "The Americans were astounded. They had never seen such a clean subway, so well appointed and so beautified with murals. Finally an American said: "This is wonderful, beautiful, much better than anything we have at home. But we have been here thirty minutes now and haven"t seen a single train, or a customer. Tell me, when do the trains run?" "Ah, ah, ah," admonished the Russian host, "how about your lynchings in the South? " (Clark, From the Danube to the Yalu From the Danube to the Yalu [New York: Harper & Brothers, 1954], p. 34). [New York: Harper & Brothers, 1954], p. 34).
2. Byoung-Lo Philo Kim, Byoung-Lo Philo Kim, Two Koreas in Development: A Comparative Study of Principles and Strategies of Capitalist and Communist Third World Development Two Koreas in Development: A Comparative Study of Principles and Strategies of Capitalist and Communist Third World Development (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1992), pp. 169170. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1992), pp. 169170.
3. Being put on night trains turned out to be the rule rather than the exception. I found on my later trips to North Korea that the authorities booked foreign visitors on night trains most of the time-perhaps because there Being put on night trains turned out to be the rule rather than the exception. I found on my later trips to North Korea that the authorities booked foreign visitors on night trains most of the time-perhaps because there "were "were sights they did not want us to see. sights they did not want us to see.
4. He spelled his surname "Bai" in the Roman alphabet, and p.r.o.nounced it "Bye." That name (also transcribed as "Pai") is fairly common among Chinese, but the more usual Korean surname is p.r.o.nounced something like "bag" without the He spelled his surname "Bai" in the Roman alphabet, and p.r.o.nounced it "Bye." That name (also transcribed as "Pai") is fairly common among Chinese, but the more usual Korean surname is p.r.o.nounced something like "bag" without the g g and is usually Romanized as "Bae" or "Pae." and is usually Romanized as "Bae" or "Pae."
5. Author"s interview with a student at Kim Il-sung University. Author"s interview with a student at Kim Il-sung University.
6. Officials mentioned the president"s busy schedule of on-the-spot guidance as the reason he would not be able to meet me during my stay. Officials mentioned the president"s busy schedule of on-the-spot guidance as the reason he would not be able to meet me during my stay.
7. Kim Il-sung, "Educate Students to Be Genuine Successors of Socialist and Communist Construction," speech to a meeting of educational workers on March 14, 1968, cited in Park Yon-hon, "Cultural Policy of North Korea," Kim Il-sung, "Educate Students to Be Genuine Successors of Socialist and Communist Construction," speech to a meeting of educational workers on March 14, 1968, cited in Park Yon-hon, "Cultural Policy of North Korea," Vantage Point Vantage Point (August 1979), p. 10. (August 1979), p. 10.
8. Theory of Public Education Theory of Public Education (Pyongyang: Social Science Publishing House, 1975), pp. 115121, cited in Park, "Cultural Policy," p. 8. While the North Korean state under Kim took the leading role in education and tried to eliminate clan groupings that had underlain the old order, it did leave the nuclear family more or less intact. See Charles K. Armstrong, (Pyongyang: Social Science Publishing House, 1975), pp. 115121, cited in Park, "Cultural Policy," p. 8. While the North Korean state under Kim took the leading role in education and tried to eliminate clan groupings that had underlain the old order, it did leave the nuclear family more or less intact. See Charles K. Armstrong, The North Korean Revolution, 19451950 The North Korean Revolution, 19451950 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003), pp. 9798. (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003), pp. 9798.
9. Chango Machyo, deputy national political commissioner of the secretariat of the National Resistance .Movement of Uganda, quoted in "DPRK President"s Reminiscences Disseminated Worldwide," Chango Machyo, deputy national political commissioner of the secretariat of the National Resistance .Movement of Uganda, quoted in "DPRK President"s Reminiscences Disseminated Worldwide," People"s Korea People"s Korea (p.r.o.north Korean newspaper published in Tokyo), December 25, 1993. High-ranking cadres in North Korea get their own, more accurate news from a daily compilation that is circulated internally, not for the eyes of ordinary people. This seems to resemble the printed daily news briefing from his aides that U.S. President George W. Bush was reported to rely on in lieu of a personal reading of the newspapers. (p.r.o.north Korean newspaper published in Tokyo), December 25, 1993. High-ranking cadres in North Korea get their own, more accurate news from a daily compilation that is circulated internally, not for the eyes of ordinary people. This seems to resemble the printed daily news briefing from his aides that U.S. President George W. Bush was reported to rely on in lieu of a personal reading of the newspapers.
10. I attended some of those sessions in Tokyo. They were small gatherings made up primarily of people a.s.sociated with the Old or New Left. By the end of 1992, according to a South Korean government count, North Korea had established 1,687 propaganda organizations in 132 countries I attended some of those sessions in Tokyo. They were small gatherings made up primarily of people a.s.sociated with the Old or New Left. By the end of 1992, according to a South Korean government count, North Korea had established 1,687 propaganda organizations in 132 countries (Korea Herald, (Korea Herald, June 19, 1993). June 19, 1993).
11.Quoted in an abstract of an article by Prof. Song Min-ho of Korea University in Seoul, "Characteristics of North Korean Literature," Vantage Point Vantage Point (June 1978): p. 14. (June 1978): p. 14.
12. Almost as North Koreans came to do in the case of Kim Il-sung, the j.a.panese reverently ascribed unlimited benevolence to their emperor, as shown, for example, by a government doc.u.ment issued after the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923: "September 4th, 1923. H.M. the Emperor, sympathizing with the hard lot of the subjects in the afflicted districts, graciously bestowed a substantial sum of money from the privy purse in aid of the sufferers" relief funds, through the Prince Regent. Premier Count Yamamoto, deeply impressed by the gracious Imperial donation, issued a proclamation addressed to the nation (Cabinet Proclamation dated Sept. 4), in which he called the attention of the nation to the benevolence and profound concern of the Imperial House for the interests of the nation" Almost as North Koreans came to do in the case of Kim Il-sung, the j.a.panese reverently ascribed unlimited benevolence to their emperor, as shown, for example, by a government doc.u.ment issued after the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923: "September 4th, 1923. H.M. the Emperor, sympathizing with the hard lot of the subjects in the afflicted districts, graciously bestowed a substantial sum of money from the privy purse in aid of the sufferers" relief funds, through the Prince Regent. Premier Count Yamamoto, deeply impressed by the gracious Imperial donation, issued a proclamation addressed to the nation (Cabinet Proclamation dated Sept. 4), in which he called the attention of the nation to the benevolence and profound concern of the Imperial House for the interests of the nation" (The Great Earthquake of 1923 in j.a.pan (The Great Earthquake of 1923 in j.a.pan [Tokyo: Bureau of Social Affairs, Home Office, 1926], p. 16). I am grateful to Geoffrey Tudor for sending me a copy. [Tokyo: Bureau of Social Affairs, Home Office, 1926], p. 16). I am grateful to Geoffrey Tudor for sending me a copy.
Asia shows other examples of worship of the ruler. In Thailand, for example, lese majesty is among the most serious of crimes. The cult of Mao Zedong in China was an obvious prototype for Kim"s cult, although most observers believe it was a case in which the student, Kim, outdid his teacher, Mao, in carrying things to an extreme. The most direct inspiration for both the Chinese and the North Korean leader cults was the cult of Stalin. For an excellent discussion highlighting Stalinism"s contributions to the system that Kim Il-sung built, see Adrian Buzo, The Guerilla Dynasty: Politics and Leadership in North Korea The Guerilla Dynasty: Politics and Leadership in North Korea (St. Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 1999), pp. 2856. (St. Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 1999), pp. 2856.
2. Fighters and Psalmists.
1. Hw.a.n.g Jang-yop, Hw.a.n.g Jang-yop, The Problems of Human Rights in North Korea (I), The Problems of Human Rights in North Korea (I), trans. Network for North Korean Democracy and Human Rights (Seoul: NKnet, 2000), trans. Network for North Korean Democracy and Human Rights (Seoul: NKnet, 2000), Kim Il Sung"s Kim Il Sung"s With the Century With the Century was published serially by Pyongyang"s Foreign Languages Publishing House. The first two volumes was published serially by Pyongyang"s Foreign Languages Publishing House. The first two volumes "were "were released in limited numbers in 1992, in Korean as well as in English and j.a.panese translations. Volumes 3 and released in limited numbers in 1992, in Korean as well as in English and j.a.panese translations. Volumes 3 and 4 4 were published in 1993, volume 5 in 1994 and volume 6 in 1995. Those six volumes (which apparently had only small printings in the English version and are difficult to find outside North Korea) take Kim"s story from his birth in 1912 up to the late 1930s, when he was a guerrilla commander in Manchuria. Page references here to those volumes are to the English version. were published in 1993, volume 5 in 1994 and volume 6 in 1995. Those six volumes (which apparently had only small printings in the English version and are difficult to find outside North Korea) take Kim"s story from his birth in 1912 up to the late 1930s, when he was a guerrilla commander in Manchuria. Page references here to those volumes are to the English version.
Thanks to Kim"s newfound concern for accuracy, With the Century With the Century is a very important and welcome new resource. Nonetheless, in an attempt to produce a truthful account for presentation in the present work, I have found it necessary even with these relatively forthright memoirs to hack through embellishments, anecdotes that do not ring true and out-and-out prevarications that range from minor fibs to Big Lies in which Kim claims that he defeated the j.a.panese to liberate Korea, and that the Americans and South Koreans started and then lost the Korean War. Part of the winnowing process involved comparing Kim"s latest claims with his earlier ones and with the findings of outside scholars, whose works are cited at appropriate points. is a very important and welcome new resource. Nonetheless, in an attempt to produce a truthful account for presentation in the present work, I have found it necessary even with these relatively forthright memoirs to hack through embellishments, anecdotes that do not ring true and out-and-out prevarications that range from minor fibs to Big Lies in which Kim claims that he defeated the j.a.panese to liberate Korea, and that the Americans and South Koreans started and then lost the Korean War. Part of the winnowing process involved comparing Kim"s latest claims with his earlier ones and with the findings of outside scholars, whose works are cited at appropriate points.
In the preface (vol. 1), Kim described the genesis of the work as follows: "Now that a large part of my work is done by Secretary for Organizational Affairs Kim Jong-il, I have been able to find some time. With the change of generations, veteran revolutionaries have departed from this life and the new generation has become the pillar of our revolution. I came to think that it was my duty to tell of the experiences I have gained in the common cause of the nation and of how our revolutionary forerunners gave their lives in their youth for this day. So I came to put down in writing what has happened in my life, a few lines each time I found a spare moment."
Be that as it may, he clearly had considerable help with the memoirs, as Hw.a.n.g suggested. An Omaha, Nebraska, pathologist, Won Tai Sohn, Kim"s friend from Jilin days, told a U.S. newspaper interviewer that during one of his 1990s visits to Pyongyang a professor from North Korea"s History Research Inst.i.tute had tagged along for every meeting, taking notes on the Great Leader"s recollections as the conversations progressed. See Geraldine Brooks, "Two Old Friends: One Became a Doctor, the Other a Dictator," Asian Wall Street Journal, September 19, 1994. September 19, 1994.
Whether his helpers merely researched and edited the work or, as seems more likely, actually ghostwrote it, their contributions are evident in the provision of considerably detailed historical background for periods and episodes touched upon by Kim-background that even the all-powerful North Korean leader would not likely have had at his fingertips, even if he had enjoyed the leisure to pore over his records. For example, when Kim describes his transfer to Yuwen Middle School in Jilin in January 1927 (vol. 1, p. 208), he refers to the files of a Chinese newspaper, Jizhang Ribao, Jizhang Ribao, for accounts of the school that had appeared in its pages years before his enrollment. for accounts of the school that had appeared in its pages years before his enrollment.
One helper allegedly was South Korean dissident novelist Hw.a.n.g Suk-young, who visited North Korea numerous times without his government"s permission while living abroad in the 1980s and "90s. When he returned to South Korea in 1993, professing satisfaction that President Kim Young-sam had inaugurated a "civilian" regime after the years of military-backed government, Hw.a.n.g was arrested, tried and sentenced to seven years" imprisonment for violating the national security law. One of the charges was that during his final stay of six months in the North he had "partic.i.p.ated in the writing" of With the Century, With the Century, which the prosecution deemed "a pro-enemy publication praising Kim Il-sung and North Korea" ([South] Korean Overseas Information Service, which the prosecution deemed "a pro-enemy publication praising Kim Il-sung and North Korea" ([South] Korean Overseas Information Service, Backgrounder, Backgrounder, October 12, 1994). October 12, 1994).
Perhaps thanks to the involvement of such professionals as novelist Hw.a.n.g, much of With the Century With the Century is a cracking good read, laced with adventure sequences, humorous anecdotes and vignettes of people Kim encountered. is a cracking good read, laced with adventure sequences, humorous anecdotes and vignettes of people Kim encountered.
For more on the significance of the early volumes of the memoirs see Bradley Martin, "Remaking Kim"s Image," Far Eastern Economic Review, Far Eastern Economic Review, April 15, 1993, or the author"s similar Korean-language article, "Revisionism in Pyongyang," April 15, 1993, or the author"s similar Korean-language article, "Revisionism in Pyongyang," Newsweek Hankuk-pan, Newsweek Hankuk-pan, April 1, 1993. April 1, 1993.
As for later volumes of the memoir, which were published in Korean posthumously, there is additional reason for skepticism about accuracy. Those go to great lengths to present claims designed to build up the personality cult of Kim Jong-il, who after his father"s death was in complete charge and thus in position to shape the account as he wished.
3. There is precedent among his communist forebears. Stalin had been a Russian Orthodox seminarian. I am grateful to George L. Olson, a retired Lutheran missionary who spent his career working in East Asia, for pointing this out to me. "Some people say communism is a heresy of Christianity," Olson noted, because the two share "a lot of the social emphasis." There is precedent among his communist forebears. Stalin had been a Russian Orthodox seminarian. I am grateful to George L. Olson, a retired Lutheran missionary who spent his career working in East Asia, for pointing this out to me. "Some people say communism is a heresy of Christianity," Olson noted, because the two share "a lot of the social emphasis."
4. Kim, Kim, With the Century With the Century (see chap. 2, n. 2), vol. 1, p. 6. (see chap. 2, n. 2), vol. 1, p. 6.
5. Kim offered a different version of what had happened. "When the U.S. imperialist aggressors" ship Kim offered a different version of what had happened. "When the U.S. imperialist aggressors" ship General Sherman General Sherman sailed up the River Taedong and anch.o.r.ed at Turu Islet," he wrote, "my great-grandfather, together with some other villagers, collected ropes from all the houses and stretched them across the river between Konyu Islet and Mangyong Hill; then they rolled some stones into the water to block the way of the pirate ship. When he heard that the sailed up the River Taedong and anch.o.r.ed at Turu Islet," he wrote, "my great-grandfather, together with some other villagers, collected ropes from all the houses and stretched them across the river between Konyu Islet and Mangyong Hill; then they rolled some stones into the water to block the way of the pirate ship. When he heard that the General Sherman General Sherman had sailed up to Yanggak Islet and was killing the people there with its cannons and guns, and that its crew were stealing the people"s possessions and raping the women, he rushed to the walled city of Pyongyang at the head of the villagers. The people of the city, with the government army, loaded a lot of small boats with firewood, tied them together, set them on fire and floated them down towards the aggressor ship, so that the American ship was set on fire and sank with all hands. I was told that my grandfather played a major role in this attack" had sailed up to Yanggak Islet and was killing the people there with its cannons and guns, and that its crew were stealing the people"s possessions and raping the women, he rushed to the walled city of Pyongyang at the head of the villagers. The people of the city, with the government army, loaded a lot of small boats with firewood, tied them together, set them on fire and floated them down towards the aggressor ship, so that the American ship was set on fire and sank with all hands. I was told that my grandfather played a major role in this attack" (With the Century, (With the Century, vol. 1, p. 10). vol. 1, p. 10).
6. See Fred Harvey Harrington, "An American View of Korean-American Relations," in Yur-Bok Lee and Wayne Patterson, eds., See Fred Harvey Harrington, "An American View of Korean-American Relations," in Yur-Bok Lee and Wayne Patterson, eds., One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 18821982 One Hundred Years of Korean-American Relations, 18821982 (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1986), pp. 4654. "Martyred on the bank of the Taedong River" is the description of the missionary, Rev. Robert J. Thomas, in the dedication to Thomas J. Belke, (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1986), pp. 4654. "Martyred on the bank of the Taedong River" is the description of the missionary, Rev. Robert J. Thomas, in the dedication to Thomas J. Belke, Juche: A Christian Study of North Korea"s State Religion Juche: A Christian Study of North Korea"s State Religion (Bartlesville, Okla.: Living Sacrifice Book Company, 1999). For a Korean scholar"s version, marshaling evidence that the expedition"s main goal was to rob tombs of their valuables, see Yongkoo Kim, (Bartlesville, Okla.: Living Sacrifice Book Company, 1999). For a Korean scholar"s version, marshaling evidence that the expedition"s main goal was to rob tombs of their valuables, see Yongkoo Kim, The Five Years" Crisis, 18661871: Korea in the Maelstrom of Western Imperialism The Five Years" Crisis, 18661871: Korea in the Maelstrom of Western Imperialism (Inchon, Korea: Circle, 2001). (Inchon, Korea: Circle, 2001).
7. From Kang Myong-do"s testimony, compiled by Tae Won-ki in a twelve-part series in the Seoul daily From Kang Myong-do"s testimony, compiled by Tae Won-ki in a twelve-part series in the Seoul daily JoongAng Ilbo, JoongAng Ilbo, starting April 12, 1995. starting April 12, 1995.
8. "The monthly tuition fee at Sungsil Middle School at the time was two "The monthly tuition fee at Sungsil Middle School at the time was two won. won. To earn two To earn two won won my mother went to the River Sunhwa and collected sh.e.l.lfish to sell. My grandfather grew melons, my grandmother young radishes, and even my uncle who was only 15 years old made straw sandals to earn money to help his elder brother with his school fees. My father worked after school until dusk in a workshop run by the school to earn money. Then he would read books for hours in the school library before returning home late at night" (Kim, my mother went to the River Sunhwa and collected sh.e.l.lfish to sell. My grandfather grew melons, my grandmother young radishes, and even my uncle who was only 15 years old made straw sandals to earn money to help his elder brother with his school fees. My father worked after school until dusk in a workshop run by the school to earn money. Then he would read books for hours in the school library before returning home late at night" (Kim, With the Century, With the Century, vol. 1, p. 9). vol. 1, p. 9).
9. Ibid., pp. 78. (Korean women keep their birth names after marriage.) Ibid., pp. 78. (Korean women keep their birth names after marriage.) 10. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 7. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 7.
11. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 8384. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 8384.
12. Only later, in the 1920s and "30s, did the j.a.panese manage to co-opt large numbers of Koreans. Only later, in the 1920s and "30s, did the j.a.panese manage to co-opt large numbers of Koreans.
13. Kim, Kim, With the Century, With the Century, vol. 2, p. 401. vol. 2, p. 401.
14. Ibid., vol. 1, p. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 47. 47. Imagining that the Versailles conference of great powers settling the peace after World War I would be Korea"s salvation, in view of Wilson"s ringing promises of self-determination for the nations, the demonstrators "were not aware that the American President Wilson was not the good guy he claimed to be," writes Young S. Kim in "Anti-j.a.pan Movement: 19111920" Imagining that the Versailles conference of great powers settling the peace after World War I would be Korea"s salvation, in view of Wilson"s ringing promises of self-determination for the nations, the demonstrators "were not aware that the American President Wilson was not the good guy he claimed to be," writes Young S. Kim in "Anti-j.a.pan Movement: 19111920" (Korea Web Weekly), (Korea Web Weekly), "After 1898 the Pyongyang station became the center of all Christian activities in northern Korea. ... The common people in northern Korea are comparatively free from stubborn conservatism. They have been hard workers, fighting against the mountainous environment in which they till the ground. Not many of the Northerners held high offices in the government, but were rather subject to the oppression and extortion of the officials sent from Seoul. Their social customs were also somewhat different from those of the capital. There were no strict cla.s.s distinctions, as in Seoul and the southern provinces, neither was there rigid separation of the s.e.xes-a custom resulting from literal interpretation of one of the five relations of the Confucian teachings. Religiously, the people largely professed Confucianism, but it had no such hold on them as it had in southern Korea. Shamanism was the prevailing belief. When the country was opened to the West, the energetic people of the North soon caught the spirit of the times. Thus the character of the people, the political vicissitudes, the social background, and the religious conditions made possible the success of Christianity in the North" (Lak-Geoon George Paik, "After 1898 the Pyongyang station became the center of all Christian activities in northern Korea. ... The common people in northern Korea are comparatively free from stubborn conservatism. They have been hard workers, fighting against the mountainous environment in which they till the ground. Not many of the Northerners held high offices in the government, but were rather subject to the oppression and extortion of the officials sent from Seoul. Their social customs were also somewhat different from those of the capital. There were no strict cla.s.s distinctions, as in Seoul and the southern provinces, neither was there rigid separation of the s.e.xes-a custom resulting from literal interpretation of one of the five relations of the Confucian teachings. Religiously, the people largely professed Confucianism, but it had no such hold on them as it had in southern Korea. Shamanism was the prevailing belief. When the country was opened to the West, the energetic people of the North soon caught the spirit of the times. Thus the character of the people, the political vicissitudes, the social background, and the religious conditions made possible the success of Christianity in the North" (Lak-Geoon George Paik, The History of Protestant Missions in Korea 18321910 The History of Protestant Missions in Korea 18321910 [Pyongyang: Union Christian College Press, 1929; reprint, Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1987], pp. [Pyongyang: Union Christian College Press, 1929; reprint, Seoul: Yonsei University Press, 1987], pp. 27 272273).
16. See Yur-Bok Lee, "Korean-American Diplomatic Relations, 18821905," in Patterson and Lee, See Yur-Bok Lee, "Korean-American Diplomatic Relations, 18821905," in Patterson and Lee, One Hundred Years, One Hundred Years, pp. 1245. It was in the Taft-Katsura Memorandum of 1905 that the Theodore Roosevelt administration traded recognition of j.a.panese interests in Korea for j.a.panese recognition of U.S. interests in the Philippines. pp. 1245. It was in the Taft-Katsura Memorandum of 1905 that the Theodore Roosevelt administration traded recognition of j.a.panese interests in Korea for j.a.panese recognition of U.S. interests in the Philippines.
17. See Wi Jo Kang, "Relations Between the j.a.panese Colonial Government and the American Missionary Community in Korea, 19051945," in Patterson and Lee, See Wi Jo Kang, "Relations Between the j.a.panese Colonial Government and the American Missionary Community in Korea, 19051945," in Patterson and Lee, One Hundred Years, One Hundred Years, pp. 6885. pp. 6885.
18. Chay Pyung-gil, "Following the Conclusion of the Serialization Yu Song-ch"ol"s Testimony,"" Chay Pyung-gil, "Following the Conclusion of the Serialization Yu Song-ch"ol"s Testimony,"" Hankuk Ilbo Hankuk Ilbo (Seoul), December 1, 1990 (translated in the appendix to Sydney A. Seiler, (Seoul), December 1, 1990 (translated in the appendix to Sydney A. Seiler, Kim Il-song 19411948: The Creation of a Legend, the Building of a Regime Kim Il-song 19411948: The Creation of a Legend, the Building of a Regime [Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1994], p. 196). [Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1994], p. 196).
19. Kim, Kim, With the Century, With the Century, vol. 1, p. 107. vol. 1, p. 107.
20. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 20. A missionary report said that the curriculum at Sungsil "presupposed considerable knowledge of the Chinese characters, so as to enable the pupils to begin the use of all available text-books in that language. It contemplates the study of the whole bible, and special histories of the nineteenth century. In mathematics, it contemplates arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. In science, it covers the elements of physiology and hygiene, botany, zoology, physics, astronomy and chemistry, geography, physical geography, Korean grammar, map-drawing, composition and calisthenics." Students in the school"s "self-help" program worked half of each day to earn their board (W. M. Baird, "History of the Educational Work," Ibid., vol. 1, p. 20. A missionary report said that the curriculum at Sungsil "presupposed considerable knowledge of the Chinese characters, so as to enable the pupils to begin the use of all available text-books in that language. It contemplates the study of the whole bible, and special histories of the nineteenth century. In mathematics, it contemplates arithmetic, algebra, and geometry. In science, it covers the elements of physiology and hygiene, botany, zoology, physics, astronomy and chemistry, geography, physical geography, Korean grammar, map-drawing, composition and calisthenics." Students in the school"s "self-help" program worked half of each day to earn their board (W. M. Baird, "History of the Educational Work," Quarto Centennial Papers Quarto Centennial Papers read before the Korea Mission of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., 1909, pp. 6768, 259, cited in Paik, read before the Korea Mission of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., 1909, pp. 6768, 259, cited in Paik, History of Protestant Missions, History of Protestant Missions, p. 320). p. 320).
21. Kim, Kim, With the Century, With the Century, vol. 1, p. 21. Is it too easy to note that his son seems to have taken this notion to heart? As far as Kim Il-sung"s subjects are concerned, he might as well have engraved in stone the commandment "Thou shalt have no other G.o.d before me vol. 1, p. 21. Is it too easy to note that his son seems to have taken this notion to heart? As far as Kim Il-sung"s subjects are concerned, he might as well have engraved in stone the commandment "Thou shalt have no other G.o.d before me."
22. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 69. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 69.
23. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 106. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 106.
24. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 106107. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 106107.
25. By 1944, 11.6 percent of Koreans resided outside Korea (Bruce c.u.mings, By 1944, 11.6 percent of Koreans resided outside Korea (Bruce c.u.mings, The Origins of the Korean War, vol. I: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes 19451947 The Origins of the Korean War, vol. I: Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes 19451947 [Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981, cited hereinafter as [Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1981, cited hereinafter as Origins Origins I], p. 54). I], p. 54).
26. Kim, Kim, With the Century, With the Century, vol. 1, p. 62. vol. 1, p. 62.
27. Author"s 1982 interview with Ju Yuanjung, official of the Committee on Minority Nationality Affairs of China"s Jilin Province. See Jilin-datelined article: Bradley K. Martin, "China"s Koreans ignore Pyongyang"s praise of Kim," Author"s 1982 interview with Ju Yuanjung, official of the Committee on Minority Nationality Affairs of China"s Jilin Province. See Jilin-datelined article: Bradley K. Martin, "China"s Koreans ignore Pyongyang"s praise of Kim," The The Baltimore Sun, Baltimore Sun, April 6, 1982. For reminiscences of a third-generation Soviet-Korean whose grandfather moved to the Soviet .Maritime Province in 1870 seeking a decent living, see Yu Song-chol"s testimony in April 6, 1982. For reminiscences of a third-generation Soviet-Korean whose grandfather moved to the Soviet .Maritime Province in 1870 seeking a decent living, see Yu Song-chol"s testimony in Hankuk Ilbo, Hankuk Ilbo, November 2, 1990 (translated in Seiler, November 2, 1990 (translated in Seiler, Kim Il-song 19411948, Kim Il-song 19411948, pp. 101104). pp. 101104).
28. Robert A. Scalapino and Chong-sik Lee, Robert A. Scalapino and Chong-sik Lee, Communism in Korea. Part I: The Movement Communism in Korea. Part I: The Movement (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 138140. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), pp. 138140.
29. Kim, Kim, With the Century, With the Century, vol. 1, p. 62. vol. 1, p. 62.
30. Ibid., vol. 1, p. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 64. 64.
31. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 70. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 70.
32. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 7879. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 7879.
33. The fact that most of his education was in non-Korean schools is something Kim had been loath to dwell upon until publication of his memoirs, presumably for fear it might detract from his Korean nationalist credentials. The fact that most of his education was in non-Korean schools is something Kim had been loath to dwell upon until publication of his memoirs, presumably for fear it might detract from his Korean nationalist credentials.
34. Kim, Kim, With the Century, With the Century, vol. 1, p. 84. vol. 1, p. 84.
35. "None of the a.s.sertions about revolutionary activities can be verified in any Korean or other records," writes Kim"s biographer, Dae-Sook Suh, of the University of Hawaii. Kim"s father "may have joined an anti-j.a.panese nationalist group, but his activities "None of the a.s.sertions about revolutionary activities can be verified in any Korean or other records," writes Kim"s biographer, Dae-Sook Suh, of the University of Hawaii. Kim"s father "may have joined an anti-j.a.panese nationalist group, but his activities "were "were of little importance." Efforts to depict the parents as major revolutionary figures "seem to be directed more toward upgrading the attributes of Kim as a pious son who reveres his parents. ... [H]is parents of little importance." Efforts to depict the parents as major revolutionary figures "seem to be directed more toward upgrading the attributes of Kim as a pious son who reveres his parents. ... [H]is parents "were "were ordinary people who suffered the poverty and oppression of the time and died early without giving much education or a.s.sistance to their children" (Suh, ordinary people who suffered the poverty and oppression of the time and died early without giving much education or a.s.sistance to their children" (Suh, Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader Kim Il Sung: The North Korean Leader [New York: Columbia University Press, 1988], p. 5). Kim himself at one point in his memoirs describes his father as attending a meeting of "veterans or the leaders of medium standing of the independence movement" [New York: Columbia University Press, 1988], p. 5). Kim himself at one point in his memoirs describes his father as attending a meeting of "veterans or the leaders of medium standing of the independence movement" (With the Century, (With the Century, vol. 1, p. 120). And elsewhere he notes that his father"s deeds had not been known as "widely to the people as they are now"-i.e., now that Kim"s publicists have emphasized them (vol. 1, p. 114). Such references may represent modest attempts to tone down previous accounts of his father in response to attacks on their veracity by Suh and other scholars, including Scalapino and Lee vol. 1, p. 120). And elsewhere he notes that his father"s deeds had not been known as "widely to the people as they are now"-i.e., now that Kim"s publicists have emphasized them (vol. 1, p. 114). Such references may represent modest attempts to tone down previous accounts of his father in response to attacks on their veracity by Suh and other scholars, including Scalapino and Lee (Communism in Korea, (Communism in Korea, pt. I, p. 204 n.). pt. I, p. 204 n.).
Dr. Won Tai Sohn of Omaha, Nebraska, son of Rev. Sohn Dong-jo, a well-known figure in the Korean independence movement and a friend of Kim Hyong-jik, -wrote -wrote to the author in January 1995, "As far as I remember, my father regarded Mr. Kim Hyong-jik as a fighter for independence playing a key role." to the author in January 1995, "As far as I remember, my father regarded Mr. Kim Hyong-jik as a fighter for independence playing a key role."
36. Kim, Kim, With the Century, With the Century, vol. 1, p. 31. vol. 1, p. 31.
37. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 8085. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 8085.
38. Scalapino and Lee, Scalapino and Lee, Communism in Korea, Communism in Korea, pt. I, p. 205. pt. I, p. 205.
39. Kim, Kim, With the Century, With the Century, vol. 3, p. 44 vol. 3, p. 44.
40. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 9293. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 9293.
41. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 89. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 89.
42. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 86. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 86.
43. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 94. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 94.
44. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 95. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 95.
45. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 148. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 148.
46. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 143. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 143.
47. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 163. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 163.
48. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 156157. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 156157.
49. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 159. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 159.
50. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 158. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 158.
51. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 159. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 159.
52. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 174178. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 174178.