9. Gen. David Petraeus, "Posture Statement" (testimony before the Senate Armed Services Committee), April 1, 2009, "Mission," "AFRICOM Mission," "Our Goals," "Overview," "Exercises and Other Engagements," "U.S. Strategic Command," Michael J. Hogan, A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 19451954 A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 19451954 (Cambridge, England, 1998), p. 74. (Cambridge, England, 1998), p. 74.
17. Roger Morris, "Take the Myth and Mystery Out of Foreign Policy," New York Times New York Times, January 29, 1980, p. A19.
18. "Eisenhower"s Farewell Address to the Nation," January 17, 1961, This sketch of Dulles and the CIA draws on the following works: James Srodes, Allen Dulles: Master of Spies Allen Dulles: Master of Spies (New York, 1999); Evan Thomas, (New York, 1999); Evan Thomas, The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared (New York, 1995); (New York, 1995); and Tim Weiner, and Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York, 2007). (New York, 2007).
20. Srodes, Allen Dulles Allen Dulles, p. 457.
21. Cabell Phillips, "Allen Dulles of the "Silent Service," " New York Times Magazine New York Times Magazine, March 29, 1953, p. SM12.
22. "The Man with the Innocent Air," Time Time, August 3, 1953, pp. 1215.
23. Srodes, Allen Dulles Allen Dulles, p. 439.
24. Srodes, Allen Dulles Allen Dulles, p. 384.
25. William Colby, Honorable Men Honorable Men (New York, 1978), p. 73. (New York, 1978), p. 73.
26. Allen Dulles, The Craft of Intelligence The Craft of Intelligence (New York, 1963), p. 54. (New York, 1963), p. 54.
27. Dulles, The Craft of Intelligence The Craft of Intelligence, pp. 44, 50.
28. Thomas, The Very Best Men The Very Best Men, p. 37.
29. Dulles, The Craft of Intelligence The Craft of Intelligence, p. 264.
30. Weiner, Legacy of Ashes Legacy of Ashes, p. 76.
31. This sketch of LeMay and SAC draws on the following works: William S. Borgiasz, The Strategic Air Command: Evolution and Consolidation of Nuclear Forces, 19451955 The Strategic Air Command: Evolution and Consolidation of Nuclear Forces, 19451955 (Westport, Connecticut, 1996); Thomas M. Coffey, (Westport, Connecticut, 1996); Thomas M. Coffey, Iron Eagle: The Turbulent Life of General Curtis LeMay Iron Eagle: The Turbulent Life of General Curtis LeMay (New York, 1986); and Curtis LeMay, (New York, 1986); and Curtis LeMay, Mission with LeMay: My Story Mission with LeMay: My Story (Garden City, New York, 1965). (Garden City, New York, 1965).
32. LeMay, Mission with LeMay Mission with LeMay, pp. 494495.
33. Tami Davis Biddle, "Shield and Sword: U.S. Strategic Forces and Doctrine Since 1945," in The Long War: A New History of U.S. National Security Policies Since World War II The Long War: A New History of U.S. National Security Policies Since World War II, ed. Andrew J. Bacevich (New York, 2007), p. 142; Borgiasz, Strategic Air Command Strategic Air Command, p. 12.
34. Coffey, Iron Eagle Iron Eagle, p. 255.
35. Steven L. Rearden, "U.S. Strategic Bombardment Doctrine Since 1945," in Case Studies in Strategic Bombardment Case Studies in Strategic Bombardment, ed. R. Cargill Hall (Washington, D.C., 1998), p. 403.
36. LeMay, Mission with LeMay Mission with LeMay, p. 454.
37. LeMay, Mission with LeMay Mission with LeMay, p. 436. Italics in the original.
38. Francis V. Drake, "On Guard!," Reader"s Digest Reader"s Digest, August 1953, pp. 1112.
39. George Barrett, "On Patrol with "The Weapon," " New York Times Magazine New York Times Magazine, April 6, 1958, p. SM16.
40. Richard S. Meryman, Jr., "The Guardians," Harper"s Harper"s, October 1955, pp. 3839.
41. "The Man the Kremlin Fears the Most?," U.S. News & World Report U.S. News & World Report, May 2, 1958, p. 62.
42. "Here Comes LeMay," Time Time, April 15, 1957, p. 33.
43. Ernest Havemann, "Toughest Cop in the Western World," Life Life, June 14, 1954, pp. 145, 147.
44. "Second Best in Air Is Not Good Enough," Life Life, May 14, 1956, pp. 5356.
45. LeMay, Mission with LeMay Mission with LeMay, p. 381.
46. David Alan Rosenberg, "The Origins of Overkill: Nuclear Weapons and American Strategy, 19451960," International Security International Security 7 (Spring 1983): 50, 55, 58. 7 (Spring 1983): 50, 55, 58.
47. Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams The Education of Henry Adams (New York, 1983), p. 1027. (New York, 1983), p. 1027.
48. LeMay, Mission with LeMay Mission with LeMay, p. 380.
49. "U.S. Cold War Overflights," Richard H. Kohn and Joseph P. Harahan, eds., Strategic Air Warfare Strategic Air Warfare (Washington, D.C., 1988), p. 109. (Washington, D.C., 1988), p. 109.
51. LeMay, Mission with LeMay Mission with LeMay, p. 481.
52. Theodore Shackley, The Third Option: An American View of Counterinsurgency Operations The Third Option: An American View of Counterinsurgency Operations (New York, 1981), p. 13. (New York, 1981), p. 13.
2. ILLUSIONS OF FLEXIBILITY AND CONTROL.
1. Maxwell D. Taylor, Swords and Plowshares Swords and Plowshares (New York, 1972), p. 170. (New York, 1972), p. 170.
2. Maxwell D. Taylor, The Uncertain Trumpet The Uncertain Trumpet (New York, 1960), pp. xi, 4, 5, 6, 146. (New York, 1960), pp. xi, 4, 5, 6, 146.
3. "Excerpts of a Speech by Senator John F. Kennedy," American Legion Convention, Miami, Florida, October 18, 1960, "Speech by Senator John F. Kennedy," VFW Convention, Detroit, Michigan, August 26, 1960, Lawrence S. Kaplan, Ronald D. Landa, and Edward J. Drea, The McNamara Ascendancy, 19611965 The McNamara Ascendancy, 19611965 (Washington, D.C., 2006), p. 69. (Washington, D.C., 2006), p. 69.
6. Russell F. Weigley, History of the United States Army History of the United States Army (New York, 1967), pp. 538, 543544, 561, 569. (New York, 1967), pp. 538, 543544, 561, 569.
7. "Who Fights Brush-Fire Wars?," Life Life, January 13, 1961, p. 43.
8. Taylor, Uncertain Trumpet Uncertain Trumpet, p. 108.
9. Robert S. McNamara, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of Vietnam (New York, 1995), p. 25. (New York, 1995), p. 25.
10. Robert J. Watson, Into the Missile Age, 19561960 Into the Missile Age, 19561960 (Washington, D.C., 1997), pp. 473495. (Washington, D.C., 1997), pp. 473495.
11. McNamara, In Retrospect In Retrospect, pp. 6, 22.
12. Quoted in The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara, a 2003 film by Errol Morris, LeMay, Mission with LeMay Mission with LeMay, p. 8. Emphasis in the original.
14. Deborah Shapley, Promise and Power: The Life and Times of Robert McNamara Promise and Power: The Life and Times of Robert McNamara (Boston, 1993), pp. 106107. (Boston, 1993), pp. 106107.
15. Ernest R. May and Philip D. Zelikow, eds., The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House During the Cuban Missile Crisis The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House During the Cuban Missile Crisis (Cambridge, Ma.s.sachusetts, 1997), p. 32. (Cambridge, Ma.s.sachusetts, 1997), p. 32.
16. "Herman Kahn"s Escalation Ladder," Kaplan et al., The McNamara Ascendancy The McNamara Ascendancy, p. 322.
18. Shapley, Promise and Power Promise and Power, pp. 194195.
19. David MacIsaac, "Strategy: Nuclear Warfare Strategy and War Plans," in The Oxford Companion to American Military History The Oxford Companion to American Military History (New York, 1999), p. 694. (New York, 1999), p. 694.
20. For a recent account of the entire episode, see Howard Jones, The Bay of Pigs The Bay of Pigs (New York, 2008). (New York, 2008).
21. Letter From the Chairman of the Cuba Study Group (Taylor) to President Kennedy, June 13, 1961, Foreign Relations of the United States, 19611963 Foreign Relations of the United States, 19611963, volume X, Cuba, 19611962 (Washington, D.C., 1997), p. 575; hereafter cited as FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba.
22. "Memorandum No. 2 From the Cuba Study Group to President Kennedy," June 13, 1961, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, pp. 600602.
23. "Memorandum No. 4 From the Cuba Study Group to President Kennedy," June 13, 1961, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, p. 606.
24. Editorial Note, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, p. 666. This reprints extracts from a handwritten note prepared by Robert Kennedy on November 11, 1961.
25. Memorandum from the Chief of Operation in the Deputy Directorate for Plans (Helms) to Director of Central Intelligence (McCone), Subject: Meeting with the Attorney General of the United States Concerning Cuba, January 19, 1962, United States Concerning Cuba, January 19, 1962, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, p. 720. The memo contains verbatim quotes from Robert Kennedy.
26. Memorandum from the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale), to Members of the Caribbean Survey Group, January 20, 1962, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, p. 721.
27. Program Review by the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale), January 18, 1962, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, pp. 710718.
28. Paper prepared in the Department of State, August 10, 1962, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, p. 922.
29. Memorandum from the Deputy Secretary of Defense (Gilpatric) to President Kennedy, January 31, 1962, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, p. 735.
30. Memorandum, August 21, 1962, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, p. 956. The doc.u.ment"s author is identified as John A. McCone, successor to Allen Dulles as director of central intelligence.
31. Memorandum from the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale), to the Deputy a.s.sistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs (Goodwin), March 6, 1962, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, p. 767.
32. Sam Dolgoff, The Cuban Revolution: A Critical Perspective The Cuban Revolution: A Critical Perspective (Montreal, 1977), pp. 63, 67. (Montreal, 1977), pp. 63, 67.
33. Theodore C. Sorensen, Kennedy Kennedy (New York, 1965), p. 308. (New York, 1965), p. 308.
34. Ted Sorensen, Counselor: A Life at the Edge of History Counselor: A Life at the Edge of History (New York, 2008), p. 321. (New York, 2008), p. 321.
35. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (Boston, 1965), p. 297. (Boston, 1965), p. 297.
36. Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York, 2007), p. 180. (New York, 2007), p. 180.
37. Memorandum from the Central Intelligence Agency Operations Officer for Operation Mongoose (Harvey) and the Acting Chairman of the Board of National Estimates (Smith) to the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale), August 17, 1962, FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, p. 942.
38. May and Zelikow, eds., The Kennedy Tapes The Kennedy Tapes, pp. 666675.
39. Dean Rusk, As I Saw It As I Saw It (New York, 1990), p. 242. (New York, 1990), p. 242.
40. Plan for Cuba, undated [1961], FRUS, Cuba FRUS, Cuba, p. 681.
41. James G. Blight and Janet M. Lang, The Fog of War The Fog of War (Lanham, Maryland, 2005), p. 40. (Lanham, Maryland, 2005), p. 40.
42. James G. Hershberg, "Before "The Missiles of October": Did Kennedy Plan a Military Strike Against Cuba?," Kennedy Plan a Military Strike Against Cuba?," Diplomatic History Diplomatic History 14 (Spring 1990): 163198. 14 (Spring 1990): 163198.
43. Sorensen, Kennedy Kennedy, pp. 3, 696.
44. May and Zelikow, eds., The Kennedy Tapes The Kennedy Tapes, pp. 177178.
45. John F. Kennedy, "American University Commencement Address," June 10, 1963, May and Zelikow, eds., The Kennedy Tapes The Kennedy Tapes, p. 198.
47. McNamara, In Retrospect In Retrospect, p. 96.
48. The centerpiece of the U.S. counterinsurgency effort during this period was the Strategic Hamlet Program, which yielded disappointing results. George C. Herring, America"s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 19501975 America"s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 19501975 (New York, 1979, 4th ed., 2002), pp. 103109. (New York, 1979, 4th ed., 2002), pp. 103109.
49. By the time of Kennedy"s a.s.sa.s.sination, American helicopters were ferrying South Vietnamese troops into battle, while American pilots in aircraft with South Vietnamese markings were flying close air support missions.
50. Herring, America"s Longest War America"s Longest War, p. 104.
51. In November 1961, at the conclusion of the so-called Taylor-Rostow Mission, General Taylor was already advocating for the commitment of U.S. combat troops to South Vietnam. The report endorsed the reigning precepts of the domino theory, declaring that "if Vietnam goes, it will be exceedingly difficult if not impossible to hold Southeast Asia"; such a defeat would lead others to question whether "the United States has the will and the capacity to deal with the Communist offensive in that area." Quoted in Stanley Karnow, Vietnam: A History Vietnam: A History (New York, 1983), p. 252. (New York, 1983), p. 252.
52. "Kennedy Considered Supporting Coup in South Vietnam," August 1963, National Security Archive, ~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB302/index.htm.
53. McNamara, In Retrospect In Retrospect, p. 164.
54. Telegram from the Emba.s.sy in Vietnam to the Department of State, January 6, 1965, Foreign Relations of the United States, 19641968 Foreign Relations of the United States, 19641968, volume II, Vietnam, JanuaryJune 1965 (Washington, D.C., 1996), pp. 1219; hereafter cited as FRUS, Vietnam FRUS, Vietnam.
55. Telegram from the Emba.s.sy in Vietnam to the Department of State, January 6, 1965, FRUS, Vietnam FRUS, Vietnam, p. 24. Although published as a separate doc.u.ment, this is a continuation of the cable cited above. as a separate doc.u.ment, this is a continuation of the cable cited above.